The locus coeruleus (LC), or ‘blue spot’, is a small nucleus located deep in the brainstem that provides the far-reaching noradrenergic neurotransmitter system of the brain. This phylogenetically conserved nucleus has proved relatively intractable to full characterization, despite more than 60 years of concerted efforts by investigators. Recently, an array of powerful new neuroscience tools have provided

Nature Reviews Neuroscience was first published in October 2000. In this issue, we therefore mark the 20th anniversary of the journal.

Various aspects of human cognition are shaped and enriched by abstract rules, which help to describe, link and classify discrete events and experiences into meaningful concepts. However, where and how these entities emerge in the primate brain and the neuronal mechanisms underlying them remain the subject of extensive research and debate. Evidence from imaging studies in humans and single-neuron recordings

Renewed interest in the use of psychedelics in the treatment of psychiatric disorders warrants a better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the effects of these substances. After a hiatus of about 50 years, state-of-the art studies have recently begun to close important knowledge gaps by elucidating the mechanisms of action of psychedelics with regard to their effects on receptor

Glutamatergic neurons in the peri-locus coeruleus respond during ingestion of palatable food or drink and promote hedonic ingestion.

Scientific meetings are an opportunity to promote research and researchers. However, despite best intentions, scientific conferences can fall short of reflecting the gender balance and diversity of the communities they serve. Here we discuss initiatives to enhance gender balance and diversity at Cosyne 2020. Scientific meetings are an opportunity to promote research and researchers. Anne-Marie M. Oswald

Although hormones such as glucocorticoids have been broadly accepted in recent decades as general neuromodulators of memory processes, sex steroid hormones such as the potent oestrogen 17β-oestradiol have been less well recognized by the scientific community in this capacity. The predominance of females in studies of oestradiol and memory and the general (but erroneous) perception that oestrogens are

The first issue of Nature Reviews Neuroscience was published 20 years ago, in 2000. To mark this anniversary, in this Viewpoint article we asked a selection of researchers from across the field who have authored pieces published in the journal in recent years for their thoughts on notable and interesting developments in neuroscience, and particularly in their areas of the field, over the past two decades

Astrocytes functionally interact with neurons and with other brain cells. Although not electrically excitable, astrocytes display a complex repertoire of intracellular Ca2+ signalling that evolves in space and time within single astrocytes and across astrocytic networks. Decoding the physiological meaning of these dynamic changes in astrocytic Ca2+ activity has remained a major challenge. This Review

Progenitor cells in fetuses carrying Huntington disease-associated mutations show differences to controls, suggesting the disease may have a developmental component.

Reinforcement learning (RL) is a framework of particular importance to psychology, neuroscience and machine learning. Interactions between these fields, as promoted through the common hub of RL, has facilitated paradigm shifts that relate multiple levels of analysis in a singular framework (for example, relating dopamine function to a computationally defined RL signal). Recently, more sophisticated

In rodents, hypothalamic network oscillations regulate a brain–endocrine circuit that influences paternal care.

Brain-wide circuits that coordinate affective and social behaviours intersect in the amygdala. Consequently, amygdala lesions cause a heterogeneous array of social and non-social deficits. Social behaviours are not localized to subdivisions of the amygdala even though the inputs and outputs that carry social signals are anatomically restricted to distinct subnuclear regions. This observation may be

In mice, loss of the autism risk gene Nlgn3 impairs oxytocin signalling and alters social behaviour.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

In female rats, social touch activates parvocellular oxytocin neurons, leading to activation of the larger population of magnocellular oxytocin neurons and facilitating sociability.

Several types of neurons involved in spatial navigation and memory encode the distance and direction (that is, the vector) between an agent and items in its environment. Such vectorial information provides a powerful basis for spatial cognition by representing the geometric relationships between the self and the external world. Here, we review the explicit encoding of vectorial information by neurons

It is still widely thought that cortical projections to distant brain areas derive by and large from glutamatergic neurons. However, an increasing number of reports provide evidence that cortical GABAergic neurons comprise a smaller population of ‘projection neurons’ in addition to the well-known and much-studied interneurons. GABAergic long-range axons that derive from, or project to, cortical areas

In the hippocampus of adult mice, neuronally expressed interleukin-33 acts as a signal for microglial cell-mediated extracellular matrix remodelling, regulating synaptic plasticity and promoting memory consolidation.

Studies over the past several decades have identified numerous epigenetic mechanisms associated with pathological states in psychiatric and neurological disease. Until recently, studies investigating chromatin-regulatory proteins, using overexpression or knockdown approaches, did not establish causal roles for epigenetic modifications at specific genes because these techniques typically affect hundreds

The shuttering of labs across nations during the COVID-19 pandemic created significant complexities related to remote lab management and ongoing research. The lessons learned may provide opportunities for new ways of working in the post-pandemic era. Gina Poe and Denise Cai reflect on the challenges to research team management presented by the widespread closure of laboratories during the COVID-19

Satellite glial cells (SGCs) closely envelop cell bodies of neurons in sensory, sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia. This unique organization is not found elsewhere in the nervous system. SGCs in sensory ganglia are activated by numerous types of nerve injury and inflammation. The activation includes upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein, stronger gap junction-mediated SGC–SGC and neuron–SGC

Activation of mitochondrial cannabinoid 1 receptors in mouse astrocytes disrupts astrocyte metabolism, bioenergetic support for neurons and social behaviour.

Postnatal brain development is highly influenced by sensory experience, in part via de novo activation of enhancer sequences by inducible transcription factors.

The activity of a subset of projections neurons in the song premotor nucleus HVC of canaries depends on preceding steps in the bird’s song and can predict future song phrases.

To continuously process neural activity underlying sensation, movement and cognition, the CNS requires a homeostatic microenvironment that is not only enriched in nutrients to meet its high metabolic demands but that is also devoid of toxins that might harm the sensitive neural tissues. This highly regulated microenvironment is made possible by two unique features of CNS vasculature absent in the peripheral

In flies, mutant TRPV4 causes mitochondrial transport deficits, axonal degeneration and neuronal dysfunction.

Two studies shed light on the neural bases of torpor and a hibernation-like state not usually observed in mice.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Globally, 50 million people live with dementia, with Alzheimer disease (AD) being responsible for two-thirds of the total cases. As ageing is the main risk factor for dementia-related neurodegeneration, changes in the timing or nature of the cellular hallmarks of normal ageing might be key to understanding the events that convert normal ageing into neurodegeneration. Cellular senescence is a candidate

Neuronal silencing drives homeostatic plasticity by regulating the alternative splicing of potassium channels.

The human motor cortex comprises a microcircuit of five interconnected layers with different cell types. In this Review, we use a layer-specific and cell-specific approach to integrate physiological accounts of this motor cortex microcircuit with the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases affecting motor functions. In doing so we can begin to link motor microcircuit pathology to specific disease

The temporal association cortex, a higher cortical area, of mother mice becomes tuned to pups’ ultrasonic vocalizations.

Spinal cord injury remains a scientific and therapeutic challenge with great cost to individuals and society. The goal of research in this field is to find a means of restoring lost function. Recently we have seen considerable progress in understanding the injury process and the capacity of CNS neurons to regenerate, as well as innovations in stem cell biology. This presents an opportunity to develop

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Although neuroscientists focus on only very few animal species today, there are many important reasons to take advantage of model system diversity and embrace (anew) a comparative approach in modern brain research. Recent technological advances make this increasingly possible.

In a rat model of spinal cord injury, inhibiting calmodulin-mediated relocalization of aquaporin 4 to the blood–spinal cord barrier after injury reduced CNS oedema and promoted functional recovery.

Context-dependent biological variation presents a unique challenge to the reproducibility of results in experimental animal research, because organisms’ responses to experimental treatments can vary with both genotype and environmental conditions. In March 2019, experts in animal biology, experimental design and statistics convened in Blonay, Switzerland, to discuss strategies addressing this challenge