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Political Speech on Campus: Shifting the Emphasis from “if” to “how” Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2024-03-11 Mario Clemens, Christian Hochmuth
Universities in many liberal democracies, such as the US, the UK, or Germany, grapple with a pivotal question: how much room should be given to controversial utterances? On the one side, there are those who advocate for limiting permissible speech on campus to create a safe environment for a diverse student body and counter the mainstreaming of extremist views, particularly by right-wing populists
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Citation Elites in Polytheistic and Umbrella Disciplines: Patterns of Stratification and Concentration in Danish and British Science Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2024-02-24 Alexander Kladakis, Philippe Mongeon, Carter W. Bloch
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Evaluation Practices of Doctoral Examination Committees: Boundary-Work Under Pressure Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2024-02-22 Maja Elmgren, Åsa Lindberg-Sand, Anders Sonesson
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Structural Power and Epistemologies in the Scientific Field: Why a Rapid Reconciliation Between Functional and Evolutionary Biology is Unlikely Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2024-01-30
Abstract The past decade has been marked by a series of global crises, presenting an opportunity to reevaluate the relationship between science and politics. The biological sciences are instrumental in understanding natural phenomena and informing policy decisions. However, scholars argue that current scientific expertise often fails to account for entire populations and long-term impacts, hindering
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Mapping the German Diamond Open Access Journal Landscape Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2024-01-08 Niels Taubert, Linda Sterzik, Andre Bruns
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The Feeling Rules of Peer Review: Defining, Displaying, and Managing Emotions in Evaluation for Research Funding Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-12-29 Lucas Brunet, Ruth Müller
Punctuated by joy, disappointments, and conflicts, research evaluation constitutes an intense, emotional moment in scientific life. Yet reviewers and research institutions often expect evaluations to be conducted objectively and dispassionately. Inspired by the scholarship describing the role of emotions in scientific practices, we argue instead, that reviewers actively define, display and manage their
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New Arguments for a pure lottery in Research Funding: A Sketch for a Future Science Policy Without Time-Consuming Grant Competitions Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-11-03 Lambros Roumbanis
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Pushing Boundaries: The European Universities Initiative as a Case of Transnational Institution Building Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-10-31 Marcelo Marques, Lukas Graf
The European Universities Initiative (EUI), created by the European Commission in 2017, is a recent novel phenomenon within the European Union policy toolkit that explicitly targets the development of transnational cooperation in higher education (HE). To date, the EUI counts 44 European university alliances, involving around 340 HE institutions. In this paper, we argue that the EUI can be seen as
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Academic Inbreeding at Universities in the Czech Republic: Beyond Immobile Inbred Employees? Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-10-31 Jan Kohoutek, Karel Hanuš, Marián Sekerák
This paper presents the results of qualitative research on academic inbreeding in Czech higher education, the first of its kind. Its focus is on exploring the significance of academic inbreeding, its types, practices, and possible solutions. The research for this paper was done among academic staff at eight institutions of higher education in the Czech Republic. It was conceptually informed by ideas
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Convergence Research as a ‘System-of-Systems’: A Framework and Research Agenda Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-09-14 Lisa C. Gajary, Shalini Misra, Anand Desai, Dean M. Evasius, Joy Frechtling, David A. Pendlebury, Joshua D. Schnell, Gary Silverstein, John Wells
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The Corona Truth Wars: Epistemic Disputes and Societal Conflicts around a Pandemic—An Introduction to the Special Issue Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-09-08 Jaron Harambam, Ehler Voss
Ever since the start of the Corona pandemic, different and often conflicting views have emerged about the virus and how to appropriately deal with it. Such epistemic, societal, and economic criticisms, including those about government imposed measures, have often been dismissed as dangerous forms of conspiratorial disinformation that should be (and have been) excluded from the realm of reasonable political
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The Framing of Diversity Statements in European Universities: The Role of Imprinting and Institutional Legacy Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-09-07 Nicole Philippczyck, Jan Grundmann, Simon Oertel
We analyze the role of institutional founding conditions and institutional legacy for universities’ self-representation in terms of diversity. Based on 374 universities located in the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Poland, we can differentiate between a more idealistic understanding (logic of inclusion and equality) and a more market-oriented understanding (market logic) of diversity
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Conjuration and Conspiracy. The Controversy over the German Covid Policy as a Mediumistic Trial, or: The Medium is the Mess Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-08-11 Ehler Voss
Based on anthropological fieldwork among protesters against the Covid policy in Germany, this paper elaborates the symmetry of accusations made against each other by proponents and opponents of the state-imposed protection measures against the backdrop of an asymmetrical distribution of power. The social dynamics that emerged during the pandemic are often understood as the result of a knowledge controversy
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Covid Vaccination Disputes in Czechia: Political Myth-Making and Boundary Work Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-07-29 Radek Chlup
The paper argues that one of the reasons the suppression of scientific dissent during the Covid pandemic has been so severe was because the dominant scientific Covid narrative has been turned into a political myth, i.e. a narrative mobilizing groups in support of key moral values. Taking the example of Covid vaccination, I show the key values with which it became linked in Czechia. Questioning vaccination
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From Bogus Journals to Predatory Universities: The Evolution of the Russian Academic Sphere Within the Predatory Settings of the State Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-07-12 Dmitrii Trubnikov, Ekaterina Trubnikova
The transition to the market economy, which began in Russia more than 30 years ago, has dramatically affected the performance of the Russian academic sphere. The market transformation in the country coincided with significant changes in the global academia. Bureaucratization and obsession with performance indicators have been very welcomed by the Russian system and have been incorporated in various
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The ‘Zoomification’ of Collaboration: How Timely Technology has Affected Academic Research Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-07-12 Barry Bozeman, Monica Gaughan
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The Communication Function of Universities: Is There a Place for Science Communication? Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-07-11 Marta Entradas, Martin W. Bauer, Frank Marcinkowski, Giuseppe Pellegrini
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More Than Euros: Exploring the Construction of Project Grants as Prizes and Consolations Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-06-27 Peter Edlund
In previous funding literature, ample attention has been devoted to the consequences of competition for project grants. These consequences tend to be fueled by status distinctions among grants, but scant attention has been directed toward how such distinctions are constructed. My aim with this paper is to develop new knowledge about the ways in which scientists ascribe meanings that construct status
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Vaccine Hesitancy and the Concept of Trust: An Analysis Based on the Israeli COVID-19 Vaccination Campaign Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-06-10 Ori Freiman
This paper examines the trust relations involved in Israel’s COVID-19 vaccination campaign, focusing on vaccine hesitancy and the concept of ‘trust’. The first section offers a conceptual analysis of ‘trust’. Instead of analyzing trust in the vaccination campaign as a whole, a few objects of trust are identified and examined. In section two, the Israeli vaccination campaign is presented, and the focus
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Public-Private Partnerships and the Landscape of Neglected Tropical Disease Research: The Shifting Logic and Spaces of Knowledge Production Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-06-02 Hugo Ferpozzi
Until the recent spread of public-private partnerships, pharmaceutical firms had avoided research and development into neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Because these are diseases that affect the poorest populations in developing regions, research and development initiatives have for the most part depended on the resources and expertise drawn from academia, international organizations, and intermittent
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Big Science, Big Trouble? Understanding Conflict in and Around Big Science Projects and Networks Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-05-30 Anna-Lena Rüland
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“They Don't Understand Us, but We Have to Understand Them”: Interrogating the Making of Interdisciplinary Research in Chilean Climate Science Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-05-13 Tomas Undurraga, Sasha Mudd, Dusan Cotoras, Gonzalo Aguirre, Tamara Orellana
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Metascience as a Scientific Social Movement Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-04-24 David Peterson, Aaron Panofsky
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Steering the Direction of Research through Organizational Identity Formation Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-04-18 Thomas Franssen, Siri Brorstad Borlaug, Anders Hylmö
Public research organizations respond to external pressures from national research evaluation systems, performance-based funding systems and university rankings by translating them into internal goals, rules and regulations and by developing organizational identities, profiles and missions. Organizational responses have primarily been studied at the central organizational level, and research on the
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A Masked Truth? Public Discussions about Face Masks on a French Health Forum Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-04-17 Madeleine Akrich, Franck Cochoy
By analyzing the discussion on a health forum, we examine how wearing sanitary masks during the Covid-19 pandemic changed people’s lives and what adjustments were required. During our review, we encountered theories referred to by participants as “conspiracy theories” that led to heated exchanges on the forum. Surprisingly, these interactions promoted, rather than prevented, collective exploration
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Who Am I? The Influence of Knowledge Networks on PhD Students’ Formation of a Researcher Role Identity Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-04-12 Marie Gruber, Thomas Crispeels, Pablo D’Este
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Bringing Together Species Observations: A Case Story of Sweden’s Biodiversity Informatics Infrastructures Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-04-03 Jesse D. Peterson, Dick Kasperowski, René van der Wal
Biodiversity informatics produces global biodiversity knowledge through the collection and analysis of biodiversity data using informatics techniques. To do so, biodiversity informatics relies upon data accrual, standardization, transferability, openness, and “invisible” infrastructure. What biodiversity informatics mean to society, however, cannot be adequately understood without recognizing what
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Conception and Interpretation of Interdisciplinarity in Research Practice: Findings from Group Discussions in the Emerging Field of Digital Transformation Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-02-25 Josephine B. Schmitt, Anne Goldmann, Samuel T. Simon, Christoph Bieber
In recent years, we have been observing the phenomenon of an emerging scientific field: digital transformation research (DTR). Due to the diversity and complexity of its object of research digital, transformation is not effectively researchable if confined to the boundaries of individual disciplines. In the light of Scientific/Intellectual Movement theory (Frickel and Gross 2005), we wonder how interdisciplinarity
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“We Share All Data with Each Other”: Data-Sharing in Peer-to-Peer Relationships Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-02-01 Eva Barlösius
Although the topic of data-sharing has boomed in the past few years, practices of datasharing have attracted only scant attention within working groups and scientific cooperation (peer-to-peer data-sharing). To understand these practices, the author draws on Max Weber’s concept of social relationship, conceptualizing data-sharing as social action that takes place within a social relationship. The empirical
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Making Sense of Science, University, and Industry: Sensemaking Narratives of Finnish and Israeli Scientists Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-01-27 Elina I. Mäkinen, Adi Sapir
Academic entrepreneurship and the commercialization of science have transformed higher education in recent decades. Although there is ample research on the topic, less is known about how individual scientists experience and perceive the transformation. Drawing on a narratological approach to sensemaking, this study examines how entrepreneurial scientists in Finland and Israel make sense of and narrate
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A Data-Political Spectacle: How COVID-19 Became A Source of Societal Division in Denmark Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-01-25 Sofie á Rogvi, Klaus Hoeyer
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A Tale of Two Academic Communities: Digital Imaginaries of Automatic Screening Tools in Editorial Practice Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-01-11 Felicitas Hesselmann
Automatic screening tools such as plagiarism scanners play an increasing role in journals’ efforts to detect and prevent violations of research integrity. More than just neutral technological means, these tools constitute normatively charged instruments for governance. Employing the analytical concept of the digital imaginary, this contribution investigates the normative concepts that play a role in
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Park Rangers and Science-Public Expertise: Science as Care in Biosecurity for Kauri Trees in Aotearoa/New Zealand Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2023-01-06 Marie McEntee, Fabien Medvecky, Sara MacBride-Stewart, Vicki Macknight, Michael Martin
Park rangers hold a unique set of knowledge—of science, of publics, of institutional structures, of place, and of self—that should be recognised as valuable. For too long, models of the knowledge of scientists and publics have set people like rangers in an inbetweener position, seeing them as good at communicating, translating or negotiating from one side to the other, but not as making knowledge that
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The Challenge of Quantification: An Interdisciplinary Reading Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-12-21 Monica Di Fiore, Marta Kuc-Czarnecka, Samuele Lo Piano, Arnald Puy, Andrea Saltelli
The present work looks at what we call “the multiverse of quantification”, where visible and invisible numbers permeate all aspects and venues of life. We review the contributions of different authors who focus on the roles of quantification in society, with the aim of capturing different and sometimes separate voices. Several scholars, including economists, jurists, philosophers, sociologists, communication
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“Are You a TA Practitioner, Then?” – Identity Constructions in Post-Normal Science Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-12-05 Karen Kastenhofer, Anja Bauer
Technology assessment (TA) is a paradigmatic case for the manifold and, at times, ambiguous processes of identity formation of researchers in inter- and transdisciplinary settings. TA combines the natural, technical, and social sciences and follows the multiple missions of scientific analysis, public outreach, and policy advice. However, despite this diversity, it also constitutes a genuine community
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Knowledge Brokering Repertoires: Academic Practices at Science-Policy Interfaces as an Epistemological Bricolage Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-11-11 Justyna Bandola-Gill
With the rise of research impact as a ‘third’ space (next to research and teaching) within the universities in the United Kingdom and beyond, academics are increasingly expected to not only produce research but also engage in brokering knowledge beyond academia. And yet little is known about the ways in which academics shape their practices in order to respond to these new forms of institutionalised
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Censorship and Suppression of Covid-19 Heterodoxy: Tactics and Counter-Tactics Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-11-01 Yaffa Shir-Raz, Ety Elisha, Brian Martin, Natti Ronel, Josh Guetzkow
The emergence of COVID-19 has led to numerous controversies over COVID-related knowledge and policy. To counter the perceived threat from doctors and scientists who challenge the official position of governmental and intergovernmental health authorities, some supporters of this orthodoxy have moved to censor those who promote dissenting views. The aim of the present study is to explore the experiences
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The Platformization of Science: Towards a Scientific Digital Platform Taxonomy Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-10-28 Victo José da Silva Neto, Tulio Chiarini
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Boundary Discourse of Crossdisciplinary and Cross-Sector Research: Refiguring the Landscape of Science Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-10-06 Julie Thompson Klein
This discourse analysis of metaphors of the crossdisciplinary composite of inter- and trans-disciplinary research gleans in sights for science today. The first section establishes a baseline by comparing spatial images to growing use of organic metaphors in an ecology of knowledge production. Following logically from the comparison, the second reflects on metaphors of exchange and transaction in trading
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Conceptions of Professionalism in U.S. Research Universities: Evidence from the gradSERU Survey Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-09-28 Steven Brint, Ali O. Ilhan
Recent scholars of the professions have argued that a new hybrid form of professionalism is becoming dominant. This new form combines traditional commitments to ethics and community service with new commitments to managerial and entrepreneurial objectives. We analyze the perceptions of 4,300 U.S. graduate students in 21 fields concerning how well their programs have prepared them for leadership and
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Imagining Doctoral Education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Driving Technology or Being Driven by Technology Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-08-25 Jisun Jung
The recent technological revolution, often referred to as the Fourth Industrial Revolution or the Second Machine Age, has brought significant changes in both the knowledge production process and its outputs. These changes have raised the question of whether a doctoral degree will retain its unique value as a knowledge creator in the future. In addition, the global challenges confronting society, such
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Illiberal Reactions to Higher Education Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-08-05 Evan Schofer, Julia C. Lerch, John W. Meyer
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Social Innovation: A Retrospective Perspective Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-07-15 Liliya Satalkina, Gerald Steiner
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Participatory Governance Practices at the Democracy-Knowledge-Nexus Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-07-07 Eva Krick
Against the background of an increasing dependency of governance on specialized expertise and growing calls for citizen participation, this study discusses solutions to the tension between knowledge and democracy. It asks: Which institutions and practices add to striking a balance between knowledge-based decision-making and the involvement of the affected? Based on the social studies of science, knowledge
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Academic Inbreeding: Academic Oligarchy, Effects, and Barriers to Change Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-05-05 Hugo Horta
Most studies of academic inbreeding have focused on assessing its impact on scholarly practices, outputs, and outcomes. Few studies have concentrated on the other possible effects of academic inbreeding. This paper draws on a large number of studies on academic inbreeding to explore how the practice has been conceptualized, how it has emerged, and how it has been rationalized in the creation and development
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Citizen Science in Deliberative Systems: Participation, Epistemic Injustice, and Civic Empowerment Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-05-09 Lisa Herzog, Robert Lepenies
In this paper, we bring together the literature on citizen science and on deliberative democracy and epistemic injustice. We argue that citizen science can be seen as one element of “deliberative systems,” as described by Mansbridge et al. But in order to fulfil its democratic potential, citizen science needs to be attentive to various forms of exclusion and epistemic injustice, as analyzed by Fricker
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Stress-Inducing and Anxiety-Ridden: A Practice-Based Approach to the Construction of Status-Bestowing Evaluations in Research Funding Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-04-20 Peter Edlund, Inti Lammi
More than resource allocations, evaluations of funding applications have become central instances for status bestowal in academia. Much attention in past literature has been devoted to grasping the status consequences of prominent funding evaluations. But little attention has been paid to understanding how the status-bestowing momentum of such evaluations is constructed. Throughout this paper, our
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Retraction Stigma and its Communication via Retraction Notices Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-04-10 Shaoxiong Brian Xu, Guangwei Hu
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Katherine E. Smith, Justyna Bandola-Gill, Nasar Meer, Ellen Stewart and Richard Watermeyer, The Impact Agenda: Controversies, Consequences and Challenges Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-04-06 Thomas Franssen
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Acceptable Use: Morality and Credibility Struggles in Swedish 1960s Alcohol and Illicit Drug (Ab)use Research and Policy Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-03-29 Lena Eriksson, Helena Bergman
This article explores morality and credibility struggles in connection to two officially sanctioned public Swedish experiments launched in the late 1960s to investigate the (ab)use of alcohol and illicit drugs, especially in relation to young people, and the subsequent decisions to terminate the experiments and research. We argue that these 1960s struggles on how to analyze the effects of increased
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“The Hardest Task”—Peer Review and the Evaluation of Technological Activities Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-03-07 Federico Vasen, Miguel Sierra Pereiro
Technology development and innovation are fundamentally different from scientific research. However, in many circumstances, they are evaluated jointly and by the same processes. In these cases, peer review—the most usual procedure for evaluating research—is also applied to the evaluation of technological products and innovation activities. This can lead to unfair results and end up discouraging the
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The Societal Territory of Academic Disciplines: How Disciplines Matter to Society Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-02-21 Silje Maria Tellmann
This paper analyses the interrelations between academic disciplines and society beyond academia by the case of sociology in Norway. For that purpose, this paper introduces the concept of disciplines’ societal territories, which refer to bounded societal spaces that are shaped by the knowledge of a discipline, premised on the linkages between the discipline and its audience. By mapping sociologists’
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Understanding Conceptual Impact of Scientific Knowledge on Policy: The Role of Policymaking Conditions Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-02-12 Jakob Edler, Maria Karaulova, Katharine Barker
This paper presents a framework to understand the impact of scientific knowledge on the policy-making process, focusing on the conceptual impact. We note the continuing dissatisfaction with the quality and effects of science-policy interactions in both theory and practice. We critique the current literature’s emphasis on the efforts of scientists to generate policy impact, because it neglects the role
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Out of the Ivory Tower: The Patenting Activity of Canadian University Professors Before the 1980s Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-01-27 Maxime Colleret, Yves Gingras
This study analyses the patenting activities of university science and engineering professors in Canada between 1920 and 1975. Unlike most studies on commercial activities in academia, which typically focus on the post-1980 period and on university practices, we focus on the pre-1980 period and on the individual decisions of professors to patent their inventions. Based on quantitative patent data,
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Reimagining Health as a ‘Flow on Effect’ of Biomedical Innovation: Research Policy as a Site of State Activism Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-01-18 Miller, Georgia, Kuch, Declan, Kearnes, Matthew
As health care systems have been recast as innovation assets, commercial aims are increasingly prominent within states’ health and medical research policies. Despite this, the reformulation of notions of social and of scientific value and of long-standing relations between science and the state that is occurring in research policies remains comparatively unexamined. Addressing this lacuna, this article
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Revisiting the Global Knowledge Economy: The Worldwide Expansion of Research and Development Personnel, 1980–2015 Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2022-01-18 Mike Zapp
Global science expansion and the ‘skills premium’ in labor markets have been extensively discussed in the literature on the global knowledge economy, yet the focus on, broadly-speaking, knowledge-related personnel as a key factor is surprisingly absent. This article draws on UIS and OECD data on research and development (R&D) personnel for the period 1980 to 2015 for up to N = 82 countries to gauge
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Triple Helix or Quadruple Helix: Which Model of Innovation to Choose for Empirical Studies? Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2021-10-28 Cai, Yuzhuo, Lattu, Annina
While the Triple Helix and Quadruple Helix models are popular in innovation studies, the relations between them have not been addressed extensively in the literature. There are diverse interpretations of helix models in empirical studies that apply them, but these sometimes deviate from the original theses of the models. Such a situation can confuse newcomers to the field in terms of which helix model
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A Sociocultural Perspective on Scholars Developing Research Skills via Research Communities in Vietnam Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2021-10-09 Hoang, Cuong Huu, Dang, Trang Thi Doan
Given the importance of research communities and research mentoring activities in developing research skills, universities around the world have paid special attention to improving these two dimensions. However, developing research communities and research mentoring culture in Vietnamese universities largely remain at a nascent stage because these universities often have a short history of conducting
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Academic Reform in Fractured Disciplines – On the Interaction of Bologna, New-Public-Management and the Dynamics of Disciplinary Development Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2021-09-17 Grunert, Cathleen, Ludwig, Katja
At the intersection of science studies and higher education research, this contribution looks at the way in which the requirements of universities as organizations release development dynamics in academic disciplines and it analyses the interaction between discipline and organization. We will analyse German educational science, bearing in mind it is an example of disciplines that are fractured and
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The Independence of Research—A Review of Disciplinary Perspectives and Outline of Interdisciplinary Prospects Minerva (IF 2.356) Pub Date : 2021-09-08 Gläser, Jochen, Ash, Mitchell, Buenstorf, Guido, Hopf, David, Hubenschmid, Lara, Janßen, Melike, Laudel, Grit, Schimank, Uwe, Stoll, Marlene, Wilholt, Torsten, Zechlin, Lothar, Lieb, Klaus
The independence of research is a key strategic issue of modern societies. Dealing with it appropriately poses legal, economic, political, social and cultural problems for society, which have been studied by the corresponding disciplines and are increasingly the subject of reflexive discourses of scientific communities. Unfortunately, problems of independence are usually framed in disciplinary contexts