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Serena, Simone, and Semenya: After 50 Years, the Past, Present, and Future of Title IX Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-09-14 Lisa A. Giddings
This article reviews the origins and amendments to Title IX, its effects on girls and women in sports and beyond, as well as men and male sports in the United States. It goes on to explore current issues facing the law including intersex, nonbinary, and transgender athletes as well as recent regulatory attempts to balance fairness and inclusiveness in the legislation such as its effect on women of
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Gender Differences in the Concentration of Individual Performance: Evidence From Track and Field Athletics Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-09-06 Bernd Frick
Until recently, the under-representation of women in top management and government positions has been attributed to discriminatory hiring and promotion policies. A rather new perhaps competing explanation is that women tend to avoid competitive settings due to mental dispositions and personality traits that are different from those of men. In this article, the performance of female and male elite athletes
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Does the Dual Representation System of Player Agents in International Football Benefit Players? An Economic Analysis Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-08-16 Duane W. Rockerbie
It is common in international football for the same agent to be paid both commission fees by the purchasing club for negotiating a player salary and a transfer fee. This dual representation creates a potential conflict of interest for the agent. The agent may not negotiate the highest salary for the player if a higher salary reduces the likelihood of a successful transfer by lowering the resources
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Vale Ross Booth (1952–2024) Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-08-07 Victor Matheson, Robert Brooks
Among his colleagues in North America and Europe, Ross Booth was synonymous with Australian sports economics. He was a dedicated scholar, a champion footballer, and even a better bloke. He will be deeply missed.
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“And Yet…”: Title IX Fifty Years on An Introduction Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-08-07 Michael A. Leeds, Eva Marikova Leeds
The half-century since Title IX was enacted has seen an explosion of opportunities for women and girls. While Title IX has opened doors in a wide array of areas, it will always be associated primarily with women's sports. The effect on women's sports has indeed been profound. Participation and funding has ballooned at all levels, from grade school to the professional ranks. Still, much remains to be
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Football-Generated Rent Sharing and Expenditures on Women’s Intercollegiate Athletics Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-08-06 Brad R. Humphreys, Jane E. Ruseski
Recent research contains evidence of rent sharing in intercollegiate athletic programs from revenues generated by football and men’s basketball and regulations restricting compensation to athletes. Title IX mandates equal opportunities for male and female college athletes, clearly impacting athletic department budgets. These factors create a rich environment for analyzing athletic spending decisions
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Using Orthodromic Distance to Determine Homefield Advantage in Professional Bass Fishing Tournaments Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-08-06 Daniel M. Settlage, Madison E. Settlage
The home team is widely viewed as having an advantage in most team sports. Individual sports are less inclined to have homefield advantage, since they are contested on neutral sites with contestants from a wide variety of locales. Bass fishing differs from most individual sports as the venue fished is governed by local biological and climatological variation. Thus, there may be a homefield advantage
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Does Draft Currency Promote Competitive Balance? An Empirical Investigation of the National Football League 2002–2021 Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-08-02 Michael A. Lapré, Elizabeth M. Palazzolo
In the National Football League (NFL) annual draft, teams take turns selecting entering players. The draft is a market mechanism designed to promote competitive balance as the NFL assigns draft positions to teams in reverse order relative to last season's performance. Teams frequently trade draft picks for other picks and/or players. We use several market valuations of draft picks to define original
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Nontransitive Patterns in Long-Term Football Rivalries Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-07-23 Jan C. van Ours
The phenomenon of nontransitivity in outcomes, typically observed in noneffort games with predetermined probabilities and immediate clarity, extends to team-based, time-consuming games requiring effort that unfold over a long period of time. This study explores this aspect through an empirical analysis of professional football matches in the Netherlands involving three prominent teams: Feyenoord, Ajax
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Compensating Tendencies in Disciplinary Sanctions: The Case of Hurling Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-04-29 John Considine, John Eakins, Peter Horgan, Conor Weir
This paper investigates the presence of compensating tendencies in the awarding of free shots in hurling. Probit models are estimated to examine whether free shots awarded are determined by the score margin, net free count, and net card count at the time. In addition, the effect of large attendances and home games on these compensating tendencies is captured using interaction effects. Clear evidence
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Competitive Balance in the Post-2024 Champions League and the European Super League: A Simulation Study Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-04-25 András Gyimesi
The proposal of the European Super League and the 2024/25 reform of the UEFA Champions League are both major events in European club football. This study compares the competitive balance (CB) of these new tournament formats with the previous Champions League format. Short-, mid- and long-term CB are quantified by measuring the average uncertainty of match outcomes, the ratio of stakeless matches, and
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The Impact of Air Pollution on Game Outcome Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-04-09 Yiwen Xu, Ying Wang, Yang Yang
Although air pollution is an important practical and theoretical issue, the impact of air pollution on game outcomes has not yet been comprehensively investigated. Therefore, by using data from the Chinese Football Association Super League, this study examined the impact of the Air Quality Index and six major air pollutants on game outcomes. Results show that air pollution is negatively and significantly
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Expecting the Expected? Documenting Nostalgia Effects on Baseball Card Prices Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-04-08 Michele J. Aquino, Seth Gershenson
Identifying anomalies, or empirical facts that contradict theoretical predictions, is a common form of proof by contradiction in economics and finance. We identify an apparent pricing anomaly in the market for trading cards: large and persistent death effects of about 20% are observed following the death of legendary baseball players. Rational investors should anticipate each player's eventual death
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Measuring the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Elite Swimming Performance Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-04-08 Todd McFall, John Whitehead
This paper aims to understand how much elite swimmers’ training plans for the 2020 Olympics were altered by the COVID-19 pandemic and to measure the effect the interruption had on performances at the United States Olympic Trials Swimming Meet, held in June 2021. To understand better the extent of the disruption caused by the pandemic, we surveyed swimmers and their coaches prior to the meet and found
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Soccer Bubble: Is There a Speculative Bubble in the Price of International Soccer Players? Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-04-01 Francesca Pancotto, Giorgio Addessi, Nicola Auteri
An exponentially increasing trend of players’ registration prices has taken place since 2012, and we test the hypothesis that this may be a speculative bubble, using a structural break test (Chow test) on a data set of international soccer players' registration prices, that ranges from 2007 to 2019. The test confirms the presence of an abrupt change in the trend of these prices since the year 2012
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Remote Viewership of International Sporting Events and Crime: Evidence From Jamaica Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-03-25 Aubrey M. Stewart, Nicholas A. Wright
This article examines the effect of televised international sporting events (e.g., FIFA World Cup or Summer Olympics) on crime in Jamaica. We use a fixed effects model that compares, within each police division, the level of crime that occurs during these international sporting events to the rate of crime on similar days when these events are not occurring. We found that on days when the FIFA World
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The Well-Being and Social Value of Playing Soccer for Women and Men Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-03-13 Paul Downward, Pamela Wicker, Tim F. Thormann
This study examines the well-being and social value of playing different forms of soccer for men and women by employing the compensating variation approach to survey data from eight European countries. Framed by the desired objective of Title IX, this research assesses possible gender differences in the social benefits of sport. Social values are higher than the well-being derived from playing soccer
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Migrants Networks and Survival in the Job: Evidence from Foreign Newcomers on the PGA Tour Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-03-04 Raja Kali, David Pastoriza, Jean-François Plante, Ekaterina Turkina
How do migrant social networks matter for performance in the job? We examine this by constructing a nationality-based network of foreign newcomers when they first begin to play in the PGA TOUR and examine the impact of this initial social network on newcomers’ probability of surviving (i.e., keeping their license) at the end of their inaugural PGA TOUR season. We find that the migrant social network
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On the Value of a Premium College Football Player: Evaluating the Literature Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-03-04 Jeremy M. Losak, Benjamin J. Posmanick, Raymond D. Sauer
Over the past decade, the issue of player compensation in college sports has been the subject of several successful legal challenges. Athletes contend that the compensation they receive falls significantly short of the value they generate, attributing this gap to unlawful National Collegiate Athletic Association restrictions. Numerous tools exist in the sports economic literature that estimate the
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Match-Level Uncertainty in Professional Tennis Revisited—A Novel Approach Applied for the Time Between 2010 and 2019 Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-02-23 Selçuk Özaydın, Thomas Könecke
Despite its popularity, outcome uncertainty in professional tennis did not receive much attention from academics in the recent past. This is astonishing because it should be of utmost importance in professional tennis in the following years with the approaching end of the era of the Big 3. This study investigates match-level uncertainty in professional women's and men's tennis between 2010 and 2019
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The S-Score of Financial Sustainability for Professional Football Clubs Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-01-18 Richard Evans
This article extends the extensive literature on business failure and develops the approach of Altman to provide quantified recommendations for the financial sustainability of football clubs. The article uniquely identifies four scenarios that have caused insolvency for football clubs in the English Football League (EFL) and uses multiple discriminant analysis to identify financial models that delineate
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The Hot Hand in the NBA 3-Point Contest: The Importance of Location, Location, Location Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-01-11 Robert Lantis, Erik Nesson
We investigate the hot hand in the 1986-2019 NBA 3-Point Shooting Contests. Combining repeated shots in a location and shots across locations, the contest mimics game situations without many of the confounding factors. We find that a hot hand exists in the contest, but only for shots within the same location. Streaks of shots increase a hot hand, but only if the player makes his previous shot and has
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An Economic Approach to Sports Injury Policies Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-01-09 Jeffrey Cisyk, Pascal Courty
We propose an analysis of sports injury policies founded on the assertion that injuries are due to both uncontrollable risks (accidents from participating in sports) and controllable risks (athlete's deliberate choices in risk-taking). We compare the adoption decision of an injury policy made by: (a) a sport's organizer who maximizes welfare, (b) a sport's organizer who fails to account for athletes’
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Updating Beliefs Based on Observed Performance: Evidence From NFL Head Coaches Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-01-05 Michael A. Roach, Mark F. Owens
We utilize play-by-play data from the National Football League to examine coaching decisions on fourth down and how sensitive they are to information on situational success and their competitive environment. Prior fourth down successes and failures within a game influence coaches in a way consistent with the notion that recent information is more salient to these coaches when making decisions and a
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Should I Stay or Should I Go Pro? Early NFL Draft Entry by NCAA FBS Underclassmen Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2024-01-03 Brad R. Humphreys, Yulia Chikish, Peter von Allmen
Some college players face the tradeoff between continuing their education and entering the draft and forfeiting college eligibility. Little empirical research focuses on this “stay or go pro” decision. We analyze early draft entry decisions made by college football underclassmen with remaining eligibility over the 2007/08-2018/19 seasons. Regression results support both the human capital explanation
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The Flutie and Anti-Flutie Effect: The Impact of Football Championships and Athletic Malfeasance on the University Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-05-11 Abigail Cormier, Austin F. Eggers, Peter A. Groothuis, Kurt W. Rotthoff
Athletics can impact the entire university, and there is evidence that administrators’ peer rankings are influenced by athletics as well. We analyze both the positive effect of winning championship...
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Attractive or Aggressive? A Face Recognition and Machine Learning Approach for Estimating Returns to Visual Appearance Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-03-22 Guodong Guo, Brad R. Humphreys, Qiangchang Wang, Yang Zhou
This paper provides a methodological contribution by illustrating the use of computer vision and machine learning methods to identify facial characteristics for the study of facial characteristics ...
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Disaggregated Attendance Demand: Comparing Daily Ticket Purchasers and Season Ticket Holders in K-League 1 Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-03-13 Hojun Sung, Hyunwoong Pyun
This study investigates differences in the preferences of daily ticket purchasers and season ticket holders, focusing on outcome uncertainty. Using unique game-level attendance data of both daily t...
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Cross-Quality Impacts of NCAA Division I Baseball and Softball Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-03-08 Laura Beaudin
Fifty years after Title IX, inequalities still exist between men's and women's sports. Most sport studies still fail to examine women's sports. This study explores the cross-quality impacts of Divi...
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The Allocation of Additional Slots for the FIFA World Cup Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-03-08 Alex Krumer, Juan D. Moreno-Ternero
How to select participants for a sports tournament when they are divided into different sets, and one should find a fair number of slots for each set? We propose to address this question by resorti...
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Crowds and the Timing of Goals and Referee Decisions1 Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-03-07 Christopher Magee, Amy Wolaver
This paper investigates how crowds affect the timing of events during football matches. In theory, the presence of fans influences the urgency of the players on the field, and the magnitude of this...
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Outcome Uncertainty and Viewer Demand for Basic Cable Boxing Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-02-19 David Butler, Robert Butler, Joel Maxcy, Simon Woodworth
We examine the uncertainty of outcome hypothesis and consider direct demand for professional boxing using a new dataset for basic cable broadcasts. Our analysis covers 103 broadcasts in the United ...
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The Emergence of Mixed Martial-Arts and the Future of Boxing: An Analysis of Consumer Interest and Compensation Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-02-17 Nicholas M. Watanabe, Brian P. Soebbing, Tarlan Chahardovali, Yinle Huang
Despite its long-standing history as the most popular and mainstream combat sport, boxing has been confronted with increased competition from mixed martial arts (MMA) in recent decades. The dominan...
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Stock Markets’ Reactions to the Announcement of the Hosts. An Event Study in the Analysis of Large Sporting Events in the Years 1976–2032 Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-02-15 Krystian M. Zawadzki, Marcin Potrykus
This study attempts to estimate the impact of the announcements of hosts of large sporting events on domestic stock markets. The research problem is to establish a connection between the uniqueness...
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Division Play and Outcome Uncertainty in Sports Leagues Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-01-17 Young Hoon Lee, Rodney Fort
The analysis of outcome uncertainty (OU) and competitive balance (CB) has been of overwhelming importance in sports economics. Surprisingly, there is little work on the impact of the structure of p...
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Market Efficiency and Censoring Bias in College Football Gambling Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-01-17 Robert Arscott
The team totals and point spread betting lines jointly predict team scores in college football games. The gambling market’s score predictions are shown to be biased due to censoring at zero points....
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False Start? An Analysis of NFL Penalties With and Without Crowds Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2023-01-08 Alex Farnell
The lack of crowds at sports fixtures as a result of COVID-19 restrictions has allowed researchers a unique opportunity to examine the widely accepted convention of home advantage. This work takes ...
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Mass Gathering Sport Events and the Spread of Viral Respiratory Infection: Japanese Professional Baseball and Influenza Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-12-26 Hiroaki Funahashi, Alexander Cardazzi, Nicholas Masafumi Watanabe
Using weekly-level influenza case data from all 47 prefectures in Japan alongside data from Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) league from 1999 to 2018, we examine the effect of hosting games on lo...
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European Men's Club Football in the Eyes of Consumers: The Determinants of Television Broadcast Demand Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-12-14 Anthony Macedo, Marta Ferreira Dias, Paulo Reis Mourão
Using stated preferences, this study estimates the determinants of television broadcast demand for current European men's club football competitions and a hypothetical European Super League. The re...
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A Dynamic Analysis of Equal Revenue Sharing and Endogenous Salary Caps in the N-Team Leagues Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-12-12 Masaki Fujimoto
This article studies the combined effect of equal revenue sharing and endogenous salary caps in a dynamical setting. It is shown that (i) a combination of equal revenue sharing and salary caps cann...
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About the “Away Goals Rule” in Association Football. Does Scrapping the Rule Increase the Fairness of the Game? Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-11-24 Francisco J. Bahamonde-Birke, Ramón Andrés Bahamonde-Birke
The present study analyzes all major international football tournaments organized by UEFA and CONMEBOL during a period of 30 years to assess the impact of the away goals rule (AGR). The study takes...
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Substitution Effects and the Transnational Demand for European Soccer Telecasts Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-11-15 Georgios Nalbantis, Tim Pawlowski, Dominik Schreyer
European soccer leagues’ internationalization efforts have significantly increased the number of available telecasts abroad. In the US, this has fueled discussions about the degree of audience over...
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Corruption and Self-Sabotage in Sporting Competitions – An Experimental Approach to Match-Fixing Behavior and the Influence of Deterrence Factors Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-11-13 Thomas Giel, Sören Dallmeyer, Daniel Memmert, Christoph Breuer
This study investigates match-fixing employing a 2-player contest in an experimental setting. Subjects compete in a real-effort task and are bribed onetime to self-sabotage. Based on Becker’s deter...
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The Designated Player Policy Rule and Attendance Demand in Major League Soccer Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-11-01 Johan Rewilak
Evidence suggests that Major League Soccer's designated player (DP) rule increased match-day attendance in its inaugural season leading to expansion of this policy. However, there is a need to exam...
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A comparative study of scoring systems by simulations Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-10-31 László Csató
We study the trade-off between two risks for scoring rules used in sports competitions containing multiple contests: (1) the threat of early clinch when the title is clinched before the last contes...
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Sports Facilities as a Housing Amenity: Do Prices Follow Facilities? Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-10-17 Geoffrey Propheter
The sports facility amenity theory predicts that when facility sites change, home prices nearer the prior site decline while home prices nearer the new site increase. Using home sales data in the v...
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Behavioral Biases in Daily Fantasy Baseball: The Case of the Hot Hand Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-09-21 Jeremy M. Losak, Andrew P. Weinbach, Rodney J. Paul
Despite mixed evidence, sport participants and fans heavily believe in the existence of the hot hand. Prior literature examining NBA and NFL betting markets found betters were biased towards hot te...
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The Spread of Integration in Major League Baseball Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-09-08 Paul M. Holmes, Robert F. Kane
After the initial integration of Major League Baseball (MLB), teams introduced black players at different rates. We examine whether, and to what extent, team performance affected the rate of spread...
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Performance Quality Preference Heterogeneity in Major League Baseball Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-09-07 Brian M. Mills, Rodney Fort
With few exceptions, the sports attendance demand literature assumes the intensity of fan responses to home and visiting team quality are homogeneous across the markets in a league. However, the th...
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The Value of College Athletics in the Labor Market: Results from a Resume Audit Field Experiment Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-09-01 James D. Paul, Albert A. Cheng, Jay P. Greene, Josh B. McGee
Employers may favor applicants who played college sports if athletics participation contributes to leadership, conscientiousness, discipline, and other traits that are desirable for labor-market pr...
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The Importance of Team Fit for NBA Rookies’ Career Earnings Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-28 Joseph Kuehn, Filippo Rebessi
Workers entering the labor market often face a trade off between job matches that maximizes their short run and long run compensation. This trade off is influenced by peers who may enhance or dimin...
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Gendered Consequences of COVID-19 Among Professional Tennis Players Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-24 Michael Cary, Heather Stephens
The COVID-19 pandemic increased the risk of travelling, working, and participating in public events. To test whether there were gendered differences in the response to COVID-19, we examine the beha...
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You Booze, You Lose? Spillovers to Crime from Alcohol Sales at College Football Games Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-17 Zachary S. Fone
In recent years, many schools have lifted their alcohol sales bans at college football games, possibly as a tool to increase attendance and revenues. However, spillovers to crime deserve considerat...
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Compensating Differentials for the Risk of Reinjury – Lessons from Professional Boxing Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-15 Peter Anderson
A neglected area in the compensating-differential literature is how wages compensate workers for the risk of reinjury, specifically the risk of a subsequent mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI). Usin...
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Participation in Competitive Sports Closes Gender Gaps in Competition and in Risk Taking Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-11 Marc Willinger, Dimitri Dubois, Sabrina Bravaccini
We compare the preferences of athletes who practice individual sports to those of non-athletes, by combining incentivized tasks and survey questions. Athletes were more likely to opt for the tourna...
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Scoring Benefits to Eastward Travel in the NBA Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-05 James Hasbany, Ryland Burke, Lawrence Watson, Jacqueline Doremus
Travel across time zones may affect player scoring through circadian rhythm. We test how travel affects scoring for the US National Basketball Association from 2014–2018, a period featuring a new game scheduler. We also test whether a collective bargaining agreement that protected player rest changed how travel affects scoring. We find eastward travel increases scoring and point spread via three-pointers
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Policy and Policy Response on the Court: A Theoretical and Empirical Examination of the Three-Point Line Extension in Basketball Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-08-08 Justin A. Ehrlich, Shankar Ghimire, Thomas R. Sadler, Shane D. Sanders
This paper considers recent and historical changes in the three-point line distance at the NCAA and NBA levels as an example of policy change with highly-measurable outcome(s). The paper presents s...
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Real Options Applied to Consumer Goods: Maximizing Profits and Fan Welfare Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-07-18 Jason P. Berkowitz, Kurt W. Rotthoff
The use of pre-sale options for tickets is underutilized in sports. In this study, we show that the use of pre-sale options increases profits, but also increases consumer utility—making both parties better off. Thus, the efficiency gains and profit gains make incorporating options with advanced selling, as opposed to just advanced selling, an optimal strategy. Through this ticket pricing strategy,
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The Incentive Effects of Tournaments and Peer Effects in Team Production: Evidence from Esports Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-07-18 Eric Mao
This paper examines the incentive effects of increased prize differentials and productivity spillovers from substitute coworkers within the context of esports. A direct behavioral measure called “actions per minute (APM)” is utilized to gauge Dota 2 players’ on-field exertion of effort dedicated to winning the game. The results based on empirical analysis support the incentive effects of the convex
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Professional Sports Events and Public Spending: Evidence from Municipal Police Budgets Journal of Sports Economics (IF 1.8) Pub Date : 2022-06-23 Hyunwoong Pyun, Brad R. Humphreys, Umair Khalil
Prior evidence reveals a causal relationship between sporting events and crime. If sporting events increase crime, they also increase public spending on policing. We analyze the crime-police spending relationship using data from the Annual Survey of Public Employment & Payroll over the periods 1979–1995 and 1997–2010 for a sample of 52 US municipalities with and without teams. Reduced form regression