With careful planning and a focus on developing expertise, government policy has helped Taiwan become a centre for semiconductor innovation.

Transistors that are printed on paper substrates using all-carbon inks can be completely recycled, providing a potential route to helping solve the problem of electronic waste.

How did Taiwan — home to the world’s largest semiconductor foundry, TSMC — become a leading player in global electronics?

Vertical transistors—in which the channel length is determined by the thickness of the semiconductor—are of interest in the development of next-generation electronic devices. However, short-channel vertical devices are difficult to fabricate, because the high-energy metallization process typically results in damage to the contact region. Here we show that molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) vertical transistors

Electronic waste can lead to the accumulation of environmentally and biologically toxic materials and is a growing global concern. Developments in transient electronics—in which devices are designed to disintegrate after use—have focused on increasing the biocompatibility, whereas efforts to develop methods to recapture and reuse materials have focused on conducting materials, while neglecting other

Electronic technologies that can operate in harsh radiation environments are important in space, nuclear and avionic applications. However, radiation-hardened (rad-hard) integrated circuits often require additional processing and more complex configurations than conventional systems. Here we review the development of low-power, rad-hard electronics, examining the underlying phenomena of radiation-induced

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00582-0.

Woven displays with a high number of light-emitting pixels can be created by interlacing two electrically conducting fibres and forming electroluminescent units at the crossover points.

Through a combination of talent cultivation and innovative research and development, the integrated circuit design industry in Taiwan now plays a central role in global electronics.

Wide-bandgap oxide semiconductors are essential for the development of high-speed and energy-efficient transparent electronics. However, while many high-mobility n-type oxide semiconductors are known, wide-bandgap p-type oxides have carrier mobilities that are one to two orders of magnitude lower due to strong carrier localization near their valence band edge. Here, we report the growth of bilayer

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00572-2.

Implantable sensors can be used to monitor biomechanical strain continuously. However, three key challenges need to be addressed before they can be of use in clinical practice: the structural mismatch between the sensors and tissue or organs should be eliminated; a practical suturing attachment process should be developed; and the sensors should be equipped with wireless readout. Here, we report a

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00571-3.

Monitoring the flow rate, cumulative loss and temperature of sweat can provide valuable physiological insights for the diagnosis of thermoregulatory disorders and illnesses related to heat stress. However, obtaining accurate, continuous estimates of these parameters with high temporal resolution remains challenging. Here, we report a platform that can wirelessly measure sweat rate, sweat loss and skin

Nanowire-based devices can potentially be of use in a variety of electronic applications, from ultrascaled digital circuits to 5G communication networks. However, the devices are typically restricted to low-power applications due to the relatively low electrical conductivity and limited voltage capability of the nanowires. Here, we show that wide-band-gap AlGaN/GaN nanowires containing multiple two-dimensional

Wearable sensors and machine learning can be a powerful combination for capturing human gestures and tactile interactions.

An AI-assisted smart textile can be used to record, model and understand human–environment interactions.

Three-dimensional (3D) complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) integration could enable device scaling beyond the limits of conventional 2D CMOS technology. Such integration requires vertical electrical connections that pass through silicon substrates and interconnect stacked chips. The fabrication of these through-silicon vias (TSVs) creates new challenges in metrology, including the characterization

Recording, modelling and understanding tactile interactions is important in the study of human behaviour and in the development of applications in healthcare and robotics. However, such studies remain challenging because existing wearable sensory interfaces are limited in terms of performance, flexibility, scalability and cost. Here, we report a textile-based tactile learning platform that can be used

Programmable metasurfaces can be used to encode wireless signals between users at different locations.

Digitally programmable metasurfaces are of potential use in wireless multiplexing techniques because they can encode and transmit information without using traditional radio-frequency components such as antennas or mixers. Space–time-coding digital metasurfaces can, in particular, manipulate the propagation direction and harmonic power distribution of electromagnetic waves, making them suitable for

Graphene is of interest in the development of next-generation electronics due to its high electron mobility, flexibility and stability. However, graphene transistors have poor on/off current ratios because of the absence of a bandgap. One approach to introduce an energy gap is to use a hydrogenation reaction, which changes graphene into insulating graphane with sp3 bonding. Here we show that an electric

Atomically thin materials can be used to build novel forms of conventional semiconductor heterostructure devices. One such device is a resonant tunnelling diode, which can exhibit negative differential resistance and usually consists of a quantum-well structure between two barrier layers. Here, we show that a twisted black phosphorus homostructure can be used to create a resonant tunnelling diode.

Ising machines are hardware devices that can solve ground-state search problems of Ising spin models and could be of use in solving various practical combinatorial optimization problems. However, large-scale systems have to be implemented by partitioning into subsystems that are hard to synchronize and where communication between them is difficult. Here, we report a scale-out architecture for Ising

Hydrogels offer tissue-like compliance, stretchability, fracture toughness, ionic conductivity and compatibility with biological tissues. However, their electrical conductivity (<100 S cm−1) is inadequate for digital circuits and applications in bioelectronics. Furthermore, efforts to increase conductivity by using hydrogel composites with conductive fillers have led to compromises in compliance and

The development of competitive field-effect transistors based on two-dimensional semiconductors will also require the development of suitably scaled insulators.

Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) logic circuits at their ultimate scaling limits place extreme demands on the properties of all materials involved. The requirements for semiconductors are well explored and could possibly be satisfied by a number of layered two-dimensional (2D) materials, such as transition metal dichalcogenides or black phosphorus. The requirements for gate insulators

Strain can be used to modify the band structure—and thus the electronic properties—of two-dimensional materials. However, research has focused on the use of monolayer graphene with a limited lowering of spatial symmetry and considered only the real-space pseudo-magnetic field. Here we show that lithographically patterned strain can be used to create a non-trivial band structure and exotic phase of

The electrical and mechanical robustness of thin metal film electrodes can be improved by adding an atomically thin interlayer, such as graphene, between the metal and the flexible substrate.

Magnetic field sensors are important in a variety of applications, including transport and medical devices. However, existing solid-state approaches for the detection of three-dimensional magnetic fields require multiple sensors, making the set-ups bulky. Here, we show that a single spin–orbit torque device composed of a Ta/CoFeB/MgO heterostructure can detect a vector magnetic field. In-plane and

Transistors are typically based on inorganic or organic semiconductors. Metals have generally been considered unsuitable for such use because bulk metals screen electric fields and thus achieving electrically tunable conductivity is difficult. Alternatively, gradients of counterions in films of metal nanoparticles functionalized with charged organic ligands can be used to construct electronic devices

Conformable electrodes can be used to manipulate the electrical properties of a Venus flytrap, creating actuators that can be wirelessly controlled.

Tunnel field-effect transistors (TFETs) rely on quantum-mechanical tunnelling and, unlike conventional metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), require less than 60 mV of gate voltage swing to induce one order of magnitude variation in the drain current at ambient temperature. III–V heterostructure TFETs are promising for low-power applications, but are outperformed by MOSFETs

Flexible electrodes that allow electrical conductance to be maintained during mechanical deformation are required for the development of wearable electronics. However, flexible electrodes based on metal thin films on elastomeric substrates can suffer from complete and unexpected electrical disconnection after the onset of mechanical fracture across the metal. Here we show that the strain-resilient

For our 2021 technology of the year, we explore the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on digital technology.

The increasingly prominent — and inescapable — role of digital technologies during the coronavirus pandemic has been accompanied by concerning trends in privacy and digital ethics. But more robust protection of our rights in the digital realm is possible in the future.

The coronavirus pandemic has forced students and educators across all levels of education to rapidly adapt to online learning. The impact of this — and the developments required to make it work — could permanently change how education is delivered.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought an infodemic of misleading and unreliable information. In response, social media platforms have taken unprecedented steps to moderate content and promote official sources of information, which, combined with new policies and appropriate communication, could help tackle misinformation.

The potential of digital contact tracing to slow the spread of a virus had been quietly explored for over a decade before the COVID-19 pandemic thrust the technology into the spotlight. But can it actually be effective in the hard-to-model complexity of real-world social networks?

Wearable electronic devices, which allow physiological signals to be continuously monitored, can be used in the early detection of asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic cases of COVID-19.

Intrinsically stretchable electronics can form intimate interfaces with the human body, creating devices that could be used to monitor physiological signals without constraining movement. However, mechanical strain invariably leads to the degradation of the electronic properties of the devices. Here we show that strain-insensitive intrinsically stretchable transistor arrays can be created using an

Scaled-up quantum computers will require control interfaces capable of the manipulation and readout of large numbers of qubits, which usually operate at millikelvin temperatures. Advanced complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology is an attractive platform for delivering such interfaces. However, this approach is generally discounted due to its high power dissipation, which can lead

Owing to their adaptive interfacial properties, soft actuators can be used to perform more delicate tasks than their rigid counterparts. However, traditional polymeric soft actuators rely on energy conversion for actuation, resulting in high power input or slow responses. Here we report an electrical plant-based actuator that uses a conformable electrical interface as an electrical modulating unit

Resistive memory technologies could be used to create intelligent systems that learn locally at the edge. However, current approaches typically use learning algorithms that cannot be reconciled with the intrinsic non-idealities of resistive memory, particularly cycle-to-cycle variability. Here, we report a machine learning scheme that exploits memristor variability to implement Markov chain Monte Carlo

A flexible biosensing system with in-sensor machine-learning functionality can recognize up to 21 hand gestures in real time based on surface electromyography patterns from a forearm.

Hardware for deep neural network (DNN) inference often suffers from insufficient on-chip memory, thus requiring accesses to separate memory-only chips. Such off-chip memory accesses incur considerable costs in terms of energy and execution time. Fitting entire DNNs in on-chip memory is challenging due, in particular, to the physical size of the technology. Here, we report a DNN inference system—termed

Electronics with skin- or tissue-like mechanical properties, including low stiffness and high stretchability, can be used to create intelligent technologies for application in areas such as health monitoring and human–machine interactions. Stretchable transistors that provide signal-processing and computational functions will be central to the development of this technology. Here, we review the development

Wearable devices that monitor muscle activity based on surface electromyography could be of use in the development of hand gesture recognition applications. Such devices typically use machine-learning models, either locally or externally, for gesture classification. However, most devices with local processing cannot offer training and updating of the machine-learning model during use, resulting in

Technology breakthroughs at the 2020 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting, which this year takes place online.

Two-dimensional semiconductors have a range of electronic and optical properties that can be used in the development of advanced electronic devices. However, unlike conventional silicon semiconductors, simple doping methods to monolithically assemble n- and p-type channels on a single two-dimensional semiconductor are lacking, which makes the fabrication of integrated circuitry challenging. Here we

Metasurfaces, which consist of arrays of subwavelength scatterers, can be used to precisely control incident electromagnetic fields, but are typically static once fabricated. A dynamically programmable array of terahertz meta-elements, in which each element can be individually reconfigured to allow controlled wavefront shaping, could be of value in terahertz applications such as wireless communication

The development of small, energy-efficient artificial intelligence edge devices is limited in conventional computing architectures by the need to transfer data between the processor and memory. Non-volatile compute-in-memory (nvCIM) architectures have the potential to overcome such issues, but the development of high-bit-precision configurations required for dot-product operations remains challenging

Isolated point defects in silicon that emit light at telecom wavelengths could help accelerate the development of quantum information technologies using commercial platforms.

Security is a critical aspect in modern circuit design, but research into hardware security at the device level is rare as it requires modification of existing technology nodes. With the increasing challenges facing the semiconductor industry, interest in out-of-the-box security solutions has grown, even if this implies introducing novel materials such as two-dimensional layered semiconductors. Here

A magnonic directional coupler based on yttrium iron garnet could be used to create integrated magnonic nanocircuits for logic operations.

Spin–orbit torque magnetization switching is an efficient method to control magnetization. In perpendicularly magnetized films, two types of spin–orbit torque are induced by driving a current: a damping-like torque and a field-like torque. The damping-like torque assists magnetization switching, but a large field-like torque pushes the magnetization towards the in-plane direction, resulting in a larger

Antiferromagnets are of potential use in the development of spintronic devices due to their ultrafast dynamics, insensitivity to external magnetic fields and absence of magnetic stray fields. Similar to their ferromagnetic counterparts, antiferromagnets can store information in the orientations of the collective magnetic order vector. However, the readout magnetoresistivity signals in simple antiferromagnetic

The electrical manipulation of magnetization and exchange bias in antiferromagnet/ferromagnet thin films could be of use in the development of the next generation of spintronic devices. Current-controlled magnetization switching can be driven by spin–orbit torques generated in an adjacent heavy-metal layer, but these structures are difficult to integrate with exchange bias switching and tunnelling

Given its potential for integration and scalability, silicon is likely to be a key platform for large-scale quantum technologies. Individual electron-encoded artificial atoms, formed by either impurities or quantum dots, have emerged as a promising solution for silicon-based integrated quantum circuits. However, single qubits featuring an optical interface, which is needed for long-distance exchange

Near-term applications of quantum information processors will rely on optimized circuit implementations to minimize the circuit depth, reducing the negative impact of gate errors in noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) computers. One approach to minimize the circuit depth is the use of a more expressive gate set. The XY two-qubit gate set can offer reductions in circuit depth for generic circuits