The non-closure of surface energy balance, often encountered in eddy covariance (EC) measurements, raises a critical query: does this non-closure lead to underestimated scalar fluxes, particularly CO flux (Fc), when using the same theoretical framework in EC? To address this question, we utilize high-resolution large-eddy simulations (LESs) to explore correlations between energy flux imbalances and

Models based on the complementary relationship for estimating evaporation typically incorporate two parameters, one for adjusting the relationship's shape and the other for formulating potential evaporation (). In practical applications, single-parameter versions are often derived by fixing one of these parameters. But there is ongoing debate about which parameter to fix and under what conditions.

In Part 1 of this series (Garcia et al., 2022), we introduced a novel individual-based model for the simulation of dispersal flight of adult spruce budworm (SBW: ) and demonstrated the results of that model under real weather conditions for two nights in July 2013 on which SBW mass dispersal events were observed by weather radar in southern Quebec, Canada. Here, following the selection of one uncertain

The impact of diverse mulching factors on crop growth depends on their influences on heat transfer, while the precise effects of these factors on heat transfer remain unclear. To address this knowledge gap, we employed the CropSMPAC model to simulate energy fluxes and soil temperature under varying mulching conditions. Our study integrated a soil column experiment and a three–year field experiment

Measurements of atmosphere-surface exchange are largely limited by the availability of fast-response gas analyzers; this limitation hampers our understanding of the role of terrestrial ecosystems in atmospheric chemistry and global change. Current micrometeorological methods, compatible with slow-response gas analyzers, are difficult to implement, or rely on empirical parameters that introduce large

The continuous economic and ecological construction in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and Pearl River Delta (PRD) has caused frequent temporal and spatial changes in local forests, thus affecting the regional climate. Yet few studies have addressed the temperature feedback through biophysical mechanisms due to forest change in two urban agglomerations of China. We compared MODIS and Landsat-based land

Surface energy fluxes, mainly encompassing the net radiation (), latent heat flux (LE), sensible heat flux (), and soil heat flux (), play an important role in the land-atmosphere interactions. However, almost all sites face the problem of energy imbalance, and advection fluxes associated with large inhomogeneous surfaces have been ignored, especially in arid oasis areas. In this study, a three-year

Canopy temperature (T) plays an important role in regulating the rates of mass and energy fluxes at the leaf surface. Better understanding of the relationship between T and water availability may enable more accurate monitoring of ecosystem functioning in a changing climate. Here, we used high spatiotemporal resolution thermal infrared cameras deployed at three eddy covariance flux tower sites along

High latitude regions, including the circumpolar boreal biome, are experiencing important changes in the availability of usable surface water because of climate change. In this context, an adequate representation of the land-atmosphere interaction is critical to ensure optimal management of current and future water resources, forest management, and climate prediction. However, the task is particularly

The slow temperature acclimation of photosynthesis has been confirmed through early field experiments and studies. However, this effect is difficult to characterize and quantify with some simple and easily accessible indicators. As a result, the impact of slow temperature acclimation of photosynthesis on gross primary production (GPP) estimation has often been overlooked or not integrated into most

Evaporative Stress Index (ESI), also sometimes referred as Evaporative Stress Ratio (ESR), has been widely used as an indicator of vegetation evaporative stress, and is often used to track forest and agriculture droughts. Lower the stress, higher is the value of ESI or ESR. The goal of this study is to assess the suitability of these indices for tracking vegetation evaporative stress. As the dynamics

Orbiting around the non-closure problem in eddy covariance, a new generation of high-resolution thermal imagery has revealed that advection may be more common than previously expected. To investigate this, we conducted an extensive study over an irrigated alfalfa field that experienced heat and moisture advection. Over the course of five analysis periods (37 days total), multiple tower arrays and profile

Intensively managed grasslands have been found to be either carbon (C) sources or sinks depending on management and climate. This study reports the net ecosystem production (NEP) and latent heat fluxes () from a managed forage field at a dairy farm in Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada. The forage crop (ryegrass and tall fescue) was harvested up to 6 times a year. The field received multiple applications

Decreasing soil moisture (SM) and increasing vapor pressure deficit (VPD) are the main drought affecting factors of terrestrial vegetation productivity. Nevertheless, the impact of continued warming on the changing trend of SM and VPD constraints affecting vegetation productivity remains uncertain. Understanding the complex interactive effects of SM and VPD on vegetation is crucial for assessing drought

Mechanistically linking gross primary productivity (GPP) and sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) is an essential step to unleash the full potential of SIF for remote sensing-based predictions of GPP across biomes, climates, and spatiotemporal scales. The latest SIF-based mechanistic light response model that includes the fraction of open photosystem II reaction centers as key parameter (qMLR-SIF

Compared with direct radiation, diffuse radiation could be more efficiently used for photosynthesis because of the diffuse fertilization effect (DFE). Because carbon uptake and water loss are coupled through leaf stomata, DFE probably increases gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET) simultaneously. Multi-year eddy covariance flux observation data and simulated diffuse fraction

Precipitation (PRE) plays a vital role in hydrological processes, ecological vegetation, and land-atmosphere interactions in semi-arid regions. Previous research has mainly focused on the impact of PRE on large-scale regional climate change and ecological evolution. However, there have been few studies on the long-term effects of PRE on carbon fluxes in these regions, especially the time-accumulation

Tropical mountain forests are important biodiversity hotspots, which host disproportionally high number of endemic species. However, the potential impacts of climate change in these areas are uncertain. A key factor contributing to this knowledge gap is that climatic conditions experienced by organisms inside tropical forests (i.e., microclimate) remain largely understudied. Due to the effects of topography

Measurements of greenhouse gas exchange (GHG) using the eddy covariance method are crucial for identifying strategies to achieve emission reductions and carbon sequestration. There are many sites that have heterogeneous land covers where it would be useful to have balances of particular land areas, such as field trials of emission mitigation strategies, but the flux footprint infrequently covers only

The study of physically-based rainfall interception is crucial for comprehending the water balance within forest ecosystems and the contribution of vegetation to the hydrological cycle, particularly in arid/semi-arid ecosystems. Despite its importance, there is a lack of comprehensive sensitivity analysis and parameter optimization, resulting in uncertain or suboptimal predictive accuracy. To mitigate

Turbulent heat fluxes across the surface are an important mechanism of land-atmosphere coupling. But there is still a lack of sufficient observational measurements, particularly over the climate sensitive Tibetan Plateau (TP). This paper examines the partitioning between sensible and latent heat fluxes during growing season using the Bowen ratio as a diagnostic based on eddy covariance measurements

Arid and semiarid ecosystems comprise approximately 40 % of the global terrestrial surface and play an important role in the carbon-climate system. However, despite their large geographic extension in South America, they are largely under-represented in studies of ecosystem carbon fluxes. Eddy-covariance measurements of net ecosystem carbon exchange (NEE) were carried out in a Patagonian steppe co-dominated

Alpine ecosystems may be contribute to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) concentrations under intensified climate change on the Tibetan Plateau (TP). The eddy covariance technique was used in this research to examine how net ecosystem CO exchange (NEE) and its component fluxes, gross primary production (GPP), and ecosystem respiration (ER) varied over 10 years (from 2010 to 2019) in an alpine

In water-scarce regions, passive dew collectors may serve as vital supplementary water sources by collecting dew and rainwater, especially in arid or semi-arid African areas. This study examined enhancements to the standard passive dew collectors through a field experiment, which includes modification such as increased surface roughness through sandblasting (25 % coverage), adjusting panel geometry

Vegetation phenology refers to the cyclical changes of plant development in different seasons of the year, and is the result of the interaction between environmental factors and biological internal regulatory mechanisms. Current large-scale phenology studies mainly use vegetation indices for remote sensing retrieval, while the greenness information of subtropical forests is inconspicuous, causing regular

Climate change is resulting in more intense and frequent heatwaves, posing a potential threat to the structure and function of forest biome. However, due to the lack of data, the responses of forest plantations to heatwaves and the role of growth environments and management practices in mitigating these effects remain poorly understood. To address these knowledge gaps, we took advantage of the 2022

Rapid and accurate crop yield estimation is an imperative aspect of agricultural planning that is important for crop management, food security and commodity trading. There are many related factors affecting wheat yield and the relationship between them and the yield is complicated, with nonlinear spatial-temporal characteristics that are difficult to describe accurately with mathematical functions

Biomass allocation in grasslands is key to understanding plant response to environmental changes and grazing management. Yet, global studies on how this split between above-ground and below-ground biomass varies across continents and grazing practices are notably scarce. We employ a comprehensive field-oriented grassland database to examine differences in total net primary productivity (TNPP), above-ground

Wind machines are increasingly used to mitigate spring frost damage in agricultural sectors. Complementing quasi-3D temperature measurements to quantify the warming effects of wind machines (Dai et al., 2023), this study develops a numerical model to quantify warming effects on air and plant tissues and resolve the dynamic interplay between turbulent rotating plumes and canopy structure. We implement

The assessment of net ecosystem CO exchange often relies on eddy covariance measurements. Under stable, low-turbulence conditions, the measured flux may not be representative of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE), as unmeasured fluxes (e.g., advection) can become relevant. Consequently, such periods need to be filtered out for robust flux calculations. Typically, the focus lies on nighttime filtering

The recovery of degraded pastures and the increase in their capacity for storing carbon is a key strategy in Brazil's commitment to meeting its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the international effort to halt global warming. Here we report the fluxes of CO, NO and CH gasses and their balances, obtained by the eddy covariance method, from a representative pasture area in southeast Brazil

Drought resistance and drought recovery are important metrics of ecosystems in responding to extreme climate events. However, it remains unclear how drought resistance and drought recovery vary across different ecosystems and whether an internal relationship exists between them. Here, we used observed evapotranspiration and gross primary productivity from 118 flux tower stations worldwide to investigate

Determination of transpiration and water use sources of trees in arid and semiarid areas is crucial for forest management under climate change scenes. Here, seasonal variations in transpiration and water use sources of the 7– (1167 trees ha) and 20 (475 trees ha)–year–old poplar ( × ) plantations were determined based on thermal dissipation and stable isotope methods. Results showed that transpiration

Solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) has recently emerged as a promising tool for estimating gross primary production (GPP). To date, there is ongoing debate regarding whether the strong correlations between SIF and GPP persist under dry conditions. Here, we conducted continuous far-red SIF measurements in a semi-arid grassland from 2017 to 2019 to investigate its association with GPP. Our

China's terrestrial ecosystems are pivotal in upholding the global carbon balance, with their recognized capacity for carbon sequestration holding significant importance on a global scale, but there are still challenges in accurately monitoring its spatial-temporal patterns. SMOSMAP-IB LVOD, a recently developed low-frequency Lband Vegetation Optical Depth (L-VOD) product, was employed to monitor the

Process-based phenological models use thermal requirement (TR) defined by planting date, temperature and photoperiod to predict crop developmental stages. The TR value for a specific developmental stage for a given variety is often presumed to be constant regardless of environmental conditions. We calibrated and compared 12 phenological models using 27-year of observation data of one unique rice (

Ground-level ozone (O) pollution occurs across many important agricultural regions in Europe, North America, and Asia, negatively impacting O-sensitive crops such as wheat. Risk assessment methods to quantify the magnitude and spatial extent of O pollution have often used dose-response relationships. In Europe, the dose metrics used in these relationships have evolved from concentration- to flux-based

Soil moisture is critical to the Earth's water cycle as it influences water exchange between the land, atmosphere, and oceans. This study assessed the potential of a cosmic-ray neutron probe (CRNP) to monitor soil moisture dynamics in a forested mountain region, which is critical for water resource management and ecosystem health. Accurate soil moisture monitoring is essential for effectively managing

Surface solar radiation (SSR) determines the energy and climate of the Earth's biosphere, critically powering photosynthesis, thus contributing to productivity of crops like maize. SSR-use efficiency nonlinearly decreases with incident SSR, particularly at increasing SSR intensities, which are inefficiently converted into crop biomass. Here we analyze trends in SSR using both satellite- and ground-based

The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) significantly influences wheat yield variability in Australia. Tailoring crop agronomic managements to ENSO phases can effectively manage climate variability and reduce crop yield variability. Previous studies have mostly been conducted at a site scale, whose results are hardly extrapolated to a large heterogeneous area. Here, the CERES-Wheat model was calibrated

Warming leads to significant loss of CO in high-altitude regions (HAR), posing threat to the carbon sink of terrestrial ecosystem. Additionally, the spatial distribution of environmental factors and underlying surfaces also determine the carbon sink pattern. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically explore the carbon sink of HAR. Based on it, choosing the Qilian Mountains (QLM) as the study area

Rapid warming increases winter soil carbon dioxide (CO) efflux in Arctic tundra ecosystems, which can significantly offset carbon (C) uptake during growing seasons and affect the overall annual C balance. In winter, the Arctic landscape is predominantly covered with snow, which is vital for regulating ecological processes. Nevertheless, the impact of snow redistribution on the spatial distribution

Perennial leafy grasses and legumes are promising for extraction of proteins with a green biorefinery amid increasing demand for local production. However, which defoliation strategy increases radiation-use efficiency and biomass production still needs to be determined. A multi-year field experiment started in 2019 in Denmark with fertilized grasses (perennial ryegrass, tall fescue), unfertilized legumes

Remote Sensing-based two-source model is widely used to estimate crop evapotranspiration (ET), involving one key step of partitioning land surface temperature (LST) into canopy and soil temperatures ( and ). Leaf area index (LAI) plays a significant part in available energy allocation during this process. However, the asymptotic saturation problem makes the mismatch between vegetation index and LAI

Global maize production is persistently confronted with the threat of pests and diseases that are migrating to novel regions. Southern corn rust (SCR) is becoming one of the most serious maize diseases within China, with its pathogens overwintering in southern regions and then spreading northward in response to warm and moist airflow. To fill the gap in SCR prediction frameworks in northern China,

Accurate pollen forecasting models can help the self-management of allergic respiratory diseases. Our study introduces and validates, for the first time, a pollen modelling system covering the Veneto Region (Italy) at the 3 km spatial resolution for 2019. The model simulated the pollen dispersion, diffusion and deposition processes, using vegetation cover (VC) maps, phenological pollen emission algorithms

The United States (U.S.) is the world's 4th largest rice exporter and challenges associated with extreme heat and water availability may pose a threat to future productivity. Forecasts from multiple CMIP6 climate models were linked with geospatial data and a version of the ORYZA crop model, revised with updates to phenology, heat stress, gas exchange, and energy balance components, to evaluate yield

Establishing planted forests (PF) by afforestation and naturally regenerating forests (NF) are important measures of enhance carbon (C) sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems. However, the difference of biomass C stocks and allocation between NF and PF and their determinants in water-limited areas remain unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a synthesis of above-ground biomass C (AGBC), below-ground

The sensitivity of tree growth to climate is conditioned by several variables, often intermingled, such as the origin of the forest (natural vs. artificial), tree age, tree size and tree-to-tree competition. The effect of these variables is usually inferred from average growth series obtained at the stand level, thus ignoring the differences at the individual tree level and their drivers. Our objective

Spring leaf phenology influences plant fitness and is highly sensitive to environmental changes. The spring phenological escape hypothesis posits that deciduous understory plants generally leaf out earlier than canopy trees to access a period of high light before the canopy closes. However, plants in different forest layers may respond differently to climate warming, which could lead to phenological

Riparian woodlands occupy a small area of global drylands but are hotspots for carbon and water cycling because groundwater supplements a small moisture supply from precipitation (P). Despite their regional importance, it is unclear if and how climate variability alters water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO) fluxes in these ecosystems, and how ecosystem drivers vary across annual and seasonal scales.

The almond industry in California faces water management challenges that are being exacerbated by droughts, climate change, and groundwater sustainability legislation. The Tree-crop Remote sensing of Evapotranspiration eXperiment (T-REX) aims to explore opportunities to improve precision irrigation management for woody perennial cropping systems. Almond orchards in the California Central Valley were

Crop phenology models are pivotal for simulating crop development, predicting yields and guiding agricultural practices. However, uncertainties exist in simulations due to different model structures and variability in model parameters. Although quantifying these contributions to total variability is often conducted at a site-specific level, few attempts to address this for regional crop modelling using

Changes in forest phenology regulate ecosystem structure and function and have a feedback effect on climate, however, the primary factors controlling forest spring phenology remain unclear. Here, we used long-term satellite records to monitor forest spring phenology (start of the growing season, SOS) trends in China from 2000 to 2018 and quantified the coupling effect of preseason hydrothermal factors

The Budyko framework has been successfully used to evaluate variations in hydrological processes and their responses to climate change and human activity. Recently, this framework was extended to estimate the mean annual terrestrial gross primary productivity (GPP) by defining two GPP potentials and a control parameter (). However, the feasibility of the GPP–Budyko framework at the growing season scale

Forest demographic dynamics are a key process in forest restoration, but how multiple variables may affect forest demography remains unclear. With data from 1,399 permanent forest plots containing 125 species and 103,773 individual trees in the Eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, we examined the patterns of forest demography from 1979 to 2017 as affected by climate, functional traits and forest structure

Gaining insights into the impacts of altered precipitation patterns on tree species' water uptake sources and water usage strategies is crucial for water resource management, but a comprehensive understanding is lacking. We explored water uptake patterns and water-related traits of four dominant tree species (Evergreen: ; Deciduous: ) in two altered seasonal precipitation patterns (deferred wet season