Infectious diseases, including the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that has brought the world to a standstill, are emerging at an unprecedented rate with a substantial impact on public health and global economies. For many life-threatening global infectious diseases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, malaria and influenza, effective vaccinations are still lacking. There are numerous roadblocks to developing new vaccines, including a limited understanding of immune correlates of protection to these global infections. To induce a reproducible, strong immune response against difficult pathogens, sophisticated nanovaccine technologies are under investigation. In contrast to conventional vaccines, nanovaccines provide improved access to lymph nodes, optimal packing and presentation of antigens, and induction of a persistent immune response. This Review provides a perspective on the global trends in emerging nanoscale vaccines for infectious diseases and describes the biological, experimental and logistical problems associated with their development, and how immunoengineering can be leveraged to overcome these challenges.

传染病，包括导致世界陷入停滞的 2019 年冠状病毒病 (COVID-19) 大流行，正在以前所未有的速度出现，对公共卫生和全球经济产生了重大影响。对于许多危及生命的全球传染病，例如人类免疫缺陷病毒（HIV）感染、疟疾和流感，仍然缺乏有效的疫苗接种。开发新疫苗存在许多障碍，包括对这些全球感染的保护免疫相关性的了解有限。为了诱导针对困难病原体的可重复的、强烈的免疫反应，复杂的纳米疫苗技术正在研究中。与传统疫苗相比，纳米疫苗可以改善淋巴结的进入，优化抗原的包装和呈递，并诱导持续的免疫反应。本综述提供了新兴传染病纳米级疫苗的全球趋势的视角，并描述了与其开发相关的生物学、实验和后勤问题，以及如何利用免疫工程来克服这些挑战。