Gymnosperms diverged from their sister plant clade of flowering plants 300 Mya. Morphological and functional divergence between the two major seed plant clades involved significant changes in their reproductive biology, water‐conducting systems, secondary metabolism, stress defense mechanisms, and small RNA‐mediated epigenetic silencing. The relatively recent sequencing of several gymnosperm genomes and the development of new genomic resources have enabled whole‐genome comparisons within gymnosperms, and between angiosperms and gymnosperms. In this paper, we aim to understand how genes and gene families have contributed to the major functional and morphological differences in gymnosperms, and how this information can be used for applied breeding and biotechnology. In addition, we have analyzed the angiosperm versus gymnosperm evolution of the pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) gene family with a wide range of functionalities in plants' interaction with their environment including defense mechanisms. Some of the genes reviewed here are newly studied members of gene families that hold potential for biotechnological applications related to commercial and pharmacological value. Some members of conifer gene families can also be exploited for their potential in phytoremediation applications.

中文翻译：

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裸子植物的功能和形态进化：相关基因家族的肖像。

裸子植物从开花植物 300 Mya 的姊妹植物进化枝中分化出来。两个主要种子植物进化枝之间的形态和功能差异涉及其生殖生物学、导水系统、次生代谢、应激防御机制和小RNA介导的表观遗传沉默的显着变化。最近对几种裸子植物基因组的测序和新基因组资源的开发使得裸子植物内部以及被子植物和裸子植物之间的全基因组比较成为可能。在本文中，我们旨在了解基因和基因家族如何导致裸子植物的主要功能和形态差异，以及如何将这些信息用于应用育种和生物技术。此外，我们还分析了被子植物与裸子植物多效抗药性（PDR）基因家族的进化，该家族在植物与环境的相互作用中具有广泛的功能，包括防御机制。这里回顾的一些基因是新研究的基因家族成员，具有与商业和药理学价值相关的生物技术应用的潜力。针叶树基因家族的一些成员也可以在植物修复应用中发挥其潜力。