The recurrence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also called kala-azar (KA), in endemic regions of tropical countries like India, is primarily attributed to asymptomatic VL, post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection. To effectively manage VL cases and elimination targets, an early and rapid diagnosis as well as accurate field surveillance is highly essential. The traditional sampling methods like bone marrow (BM), spleen, and lymph node (LN) tissue aspirations are invasive, painful, tedious, and prone to nosocomial infections, require skilled persons and hospital facilities, and are not feasible in rural areas. Therefore, there is an urgent requirement for the adoption of a patient-friendly, non-invasive, non-hospitalized sampling procedure that ensures an effective VL diagnosis. This review aims to meticulously evaluate the most recent scientific research that focuses on the precision, feasibility, and applicability of non-invasive sampling (NIS) and techniques for the diagnosis and test of cure of VL, particularly in resource-limited settings. Apart from that, the non-invasive techniques (NIT) that have shown promising results while monitoring VL treatment response and relapse are also reviewed. The limitations associated with NIT and possible improvements in this regard are discussed as well to improve the diagnosis and management of VL.

中文翻译：

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黑热病诊断和治愈测试中非侵入性样本和工具的综述

内脏利什曼病 (VL)，也称为黑热病 (KA)，在印度等热带国家的流行地区复发，主要归因于无症状 VL、黑热病后皮肤利什曼病 (PKDL) 和人类免疫缺陷病毒 (HIV) ) 合并感染。为了有效管理 VL 病例并实现消除目标，早期快速诊断以及准确的现场监测至关重要。骨髓（BM）、脾脏和淋巴结（LN）组织抽吸等传统采样方法具有侵入性、痛苦、繁琐、容易发生院内感染，需要熟练的人员和医院设施，在农村地区不可行。因此，迫切需要采用一种对患者友好、非侵入性、非住院的采样程序，以确保有效的 VL 诊断。本综述旨在仔细评估最新的科学研究，重点关注非侵入性采样 (NIS) 的精确性、可行性和适用性以及 VL 诊断和治愈测试技术，特别是在资源有限的环境中。除此之外，还回顾了在监测 VL 治疗反应和复发时显示出有希望的结果的非侵入性技术 (NIT)。还讨论了与 NIT 相关的局限性以及这方面可能的改进，以改善 VL 的诊断和管理。