Delivery of vaccines via the mucosal route is regarded as the most effective mode of immunization to counteract infectious diseases that enter via mucosal tissues, including oral, nasal, pulmonary, intestinal, and urogenital surfaces. Mucosal vaccines not only induce local immune effector elements, such as secretory Immunoglobulin A (IgA) reaching the luminal site of the mucosa, but also systemic immunity. Moreover, mucosal vaccines may trigger immunity in distant mucosal tissues because of the homing of primed antigen-specific immune cells toward local and distant mucosal tissue via the common mucosal immune system.

While most licensed intramuscular vaccines induce only systemic immunity, next-generation mucosal vaccines may outperform parenteral vaccination strategies by also eliciting protective mucosal immune responses that block infection and/or transmission. Especially the nasal route of vaccination, targeting the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue, is attractive for local and distant mucosal immunization. In numerous studies, bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) have proved attractive as vaccine platform for homologous bacterial strains, but also as antigen delivery platform for heterologous antigens of nonbacterial diseases, including viruses, parasites, and cancer. Their application has also been extended to mucosal delivery. Here, we will summarize the characteristics and clinical potential of (engineered) OMVs as vaccine platform for mucosal, especially intranasal delivery.

通过粘膜途径递送疫苗被认为是抵抗通过粘膜组织（包括口腔、鼻、肺、肠道和泌尿生殖表面）进入的传染病的最有效的免疫方式。粘膜疫苗不仅诱导局部免疫效应元件，例如分泌性免疫球蛋白 A (IgA) 到达粘膜腔部位，而且还诱导全身免疫。此外，粘膜疫苗可能会引发远处粘膜组织的免疫，因为引发的抗原特异性免疫细胞通过共同的粘膜免疫系统向局部和远处的粘膜组织归巢。

虽然大多数获得许可的肌内疫苗仅诱导全身免疫，但下一代粘膜疫苗可能会优于肠外疫苗接种策略，因为它还可以引发阻止感染和/或传播的保护性粘膜免疫反应。尤其是鼻腔疫苗接种途径，针对鼻相关淋巴组织，对于局部和远处粘膜免疫具有吸引力。在大量研究中，细菌外膜囊泡（OMV）已被证明作为同源细菌菌株的疫苗平台具有吸引力，而且也可作为非细菌疾病（包括病毒、寄生虫和癌症）异源抗原的抗原递送平台。它们的应用也已扩展到粘膜递送。在这里，我们将总结（工程化）OMV 作为粘膜尤其是鼻内递送的疫苗平台的特征和临床潜力。