This study provides a novel framework for analysing PES-related degrees of ES-commodification. The framework differentiates PES programs by the extent to which ES are traded in a market-like exchange in terms of four PES design components. We apply this framework to a newly compiled global dataset of collective PES programs (C-PES). C-PES address communities and groups instead of individuals and private entities and provide voluntary, conditional incentives for ES protection. Many conservationists see potentials for supporting participation and cooperation when linking common land titles with the PES approach instead of strengthening private land tenure regimes. We identified 29 C-PES cases with clusters in Central and Southeast Africa, Central America, and Southeast Asia. Particularly C-PES programs focusing on carbon or wildlife ES reach medium to high degrees of commodification, whereas schemes targeting biodiversity, watershed, or bundled ES show rather low to medium degrees of commodification. Our framework allows for a more nuanced study of the pluralism of PES designs and lays the foundation for further research on the differentiated role of ES-commodification for social-ecological outcomes.

本研究为分析与 PES 相关的 ES 商品化程度提供了一个新的框架。该框架根据四个 PES 设计组件在类似市场的交易所中交易 ES 的程度来区分 PES 计划。我们将此框架应用于新编译的集体 PES 程序 (C-PES) 全球数据集。C-PES 针对社区和团体而不是个人和私人实体，并为 ES 保护提供自愿的、有条件的激励。许多自然资源保护主义者看到了在将公共土地所有权与 PES 方法联系起来而不是加强私人土地保有权制度时支持参与和合作的潜力。我们在非洲中部和东南部、中美洲和东南亚发现了 29 例 C-PES 病例。特别是专注于碳或野生动物 ES 的 C-PES 计划达到了中等到高度的商品化，而针对生物多样性、流域或捆绑 ES 的计划显示出相当低到中等程度的商品化。我们的框架允许对 PES 设计的多元化进行更细致的研究，并为进一步研究 ES 商品化对社会生态结果的差异化作用奠定了基础。