Nowadays, adolescents have extensive access to Information and Communication Technologies, which allow them to engage in social networking activities that may expose them to Online Hate Speech (OHS). While there are few cross-sectional studies about the effects of OHS Exposure on attitudes and aggressive behavior, no study aims to analyze the tendency to Speak Up when exposed to certain content (e.g., reporting, etc.). In addition, no instruments have yet been validated to assess these constructs. The aim of the present study, focused on Online ethnic Hate Speech (OeHS), is double: (a) develop a scale to measure OeHS Exposure and the tendency to Speak Up and analyze its psychometric properties; (b) analyze the longitudinal association between Xenophobia (XEN), OeHS Exposure, and Speaking Up against OeHS, while taking into account gender differences and the nested nature of the data. Six hundred sixty-six Italian high school students (52.7 percent male; MAge = 15[0.64]), nested in 36 ninth grade classes (10 schools), took part in the longitudinal study. The first wave of data collection occurred in early 2020, before the COVID-19 pandemic. The second and third waves took place 12 and 15 months later, respectively. Findings suggest that the OeHS Scale has good psychometric properties. Moreover, according to the findings, while the three variables of interest are always cross-sectionally correlated, a longitudinal negative association have been found between XEN and both Exposure and Speaking Up. Regarding the impact of OeHS Exposure, the good news is related to the absence of a longitudinal association with both XEN and Speaking Up.

中文翻译：

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接触和反对在线种族仇恨言论：仇外心理在三波纵向研究中的作用。

如今，青少年可以广泛使用信息和通信技术，这使他们能够参与可能使他们暴露于在线仇恨言论 (OHS) 的社交网络活动。虽然很少有关于接触 OHS 对态度和攻击行为的影响的横断面研究，但没有研究旨在分析接触某些内容（例如，报告等）时大声说出来的倾向。此外，尚未验证任何工具来评估这些结构。本研究的重点是在线种族仇恨言论 (OeHS)，其目的是双重的：(a) 制定一个量表来衡量 OeHS 暴露和大声说出来的倾向，并分析其心理测量特性；(b) 分析仇外心理 (XEN)、OeHS 暴露和公开反对 OeHS 之间的纵向关联，同时考虑到性别差异和数据的嵌套性质。六百六十六名意大利高中生（男性占 52.7%；MAge = 15[0.64]），分布在 36 个九年级班级（10 所学校），参与了纵向研究。第一波数据收集发生在 2020 年初，即 COVID-19 大流行之前。第二波和第三波分别发生在 12 个月和 15 个月后。调查结果表明 OeHS 量表具有良好的心理测量特性。此外，根据调查结果，虽然感兴趣的三个变量始终是横截面相关的，但在 XEN 与 Exposure 和 Speaking Up 之间发现了纵向负相关。关于 OeHS 暴露的影响，好消息是与 XEN 和 Speaking Up 没有纵向关联。