Gypsophila paniculata, belonging to the Caryophyllaceae of the Caryophyllales, is one of the worldwide famous cut flowers. It is commonly used as dried flowers, whereas the underlying mechanism of flower senescence has not yet been addressed. Here, we present a chromosome-scale genome assembly for G. paniculata with a total size of 749.58 Mb. Whole-genome duplication signatures unveil two major duplication events in its evolutionary history, an ancient one occurring before the divergence of Caryophyllaceae and a more recent one shared with Dianthus caryophyllus. The integrative analyses combining genomic and transcriptomic data reveal the mechanisms regulating floral development and ethylene response of G. paniculata. The reduction of AGAMOUS expression probably caused by sequence polymorphism and the mutation in miR172 binding site of PETALOSA are associated with the double flower formation in G. paniculata. The low expression of ERS (ETHYLENE RESPONSE SENSOR) and the reduction of downstream ERF (ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR) gene copy number collectively lead to the ethylene insensitivity of G. paniculata, affecting flower senescence and making it capable of making dried flowers. This study provides a cornerstone for understanding the underlying principles governing floral development and flower senescence, which could accelerate the molecular breeding of the Caryophyllaceae species.

中文翻译：

---

满天星染色体水平基因组揭示花发育和乙烯不敏感性的分子机制

满天星属于石竹目石竹科，是世界著名的切花之一。它通常用作干花，而花衰老的潜在机制尚未得到解决。在这里，我们提出了 G. paniculata 的染色体规模基因组组装，总大小为 749.58 Mb。全基因组重复特征揭示了其进化史上的两个主要重复事件，一个发生在石竹科分化之前的古老事件和与石竹石竹共有的一个最近的事件。结合基因组和转录组数据的综合分析揭示了调控 G. paniculata 花发育和乙烯反应的机制。可能由序列多态性引起的 AGAMOUS 表达的降低和 PETALOSA 的 miR172 结合位点的突变与 G. paniculata 的双花形成有关。ERS（乙烯反应传感器）的低表达和下游ERF（乙烯反应因子）基因拷贝数的减少共同导致G. paniculata对乙烯不敏感，影响花的衰老，使其能够制作干花。这项研究为理解控制花发育和花衰老的基本原理提供了基石，这可以加速石竹科物种的分子育种。ERS（乙烯反应传感器）的低表达和下游ERF（乙烯反应因子）基因拷贝数的减少共同导致G. paniculata对乙烯不敏感，影响花的衰老，使其能够制作干花。这项研究为理解控制花发育和花衰老的基本原理提供了基石，这可以加速石竹科物种的分子育种。ERS（乙烯反应传感器）的低表达和下游ERF（乙烯反应因子）基因拷贝数的减少共同导致G. paniculata对乙烯不敏感，影响花的衰老，使其能够制作干花。这项研究为理解控制花发育和花衰老的基本原理提供了基石，这可以加速石竹科物种的分子育种。