In vitro modelling the complex (patho-) physiological conditions of the heart is a major challenge in cardiovascular research. In recent years, methods based on three-dimensional (3D) cultivation approaches have steadily evolved to overcome the major limitations of conventional adherent two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cultivation. These 3D approaches aim to study, reproduce or modify fundamental native features of the heart such as tissue organization and cardiovascular microenvironment. Therefore, these systems have great potential for (patient-specific) disease research, for the development of new drug screening platforms, and for the use in regenerative and replacement therapy applications. Consequently, continuous improvement and adaptation is required with respect to fundamental limitations such as cardiomyocyte maturation, scalability, heterogeneity, vascularization, and reproduction of native properties. In this review, 2D monolayer culturing and the 3D in vitro systems of cardiac spheroids, organoids, engineered cardiac microtissue and bioprinting as well as the ex vivo technique of myocardial slicing are introduced with their basic concepts, advantages, and limitations. Furthermore, recent advances of various new approaches aiming to extend as well as to optimize these in vitro and ex vivo systems are presented.

中文翻译：

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加速心血管研究：平移 2D 和 3D 心脏模型的最新进展

体外对心脏的复杂（病态）生理条件进行建模是心血管研究中的一项重大挑战。近年来，基于三维 (3D) 培养方法的方法稳步发展，以克服传统贴壁二维 (2D) 单层培养的主要局限性。这些 3D 方法旨在研究、复制或修改心脏的基本原生特征，例如组织组织和心血管微环境。因此，这些系统在（特定于患者的）疾病研究、新药筛选平台的开发以及再生和替代疗法应用方面具有巨大潜力。因此，需要在心肌细胞成熟、可扩展性、异质性等基本限制方面不断改进和适应，血管形成和原生特性的复制。在这篇综述中，2D 单层培养和 3D介绍了心脏球体、类器官、工程化心脏微组织和生物打印的体外系统以及心肌切片的离体技术及其基本概念、优点和局限性。此外，还介绍了旨在扩展和优化这些体外和离体系统的各种新方法的最新进展。