Abstract In the standard levels-of-processing (LOP) paradigm, subjects are presented with a question directing them to attend to surface features (case), phonetic features (rhyme), or semantic features (category) of an upcoming word. Answering the question greatly affects recall and recognition for the word, and this outcome is attributed to differing LOP of the word. Craik (1977) reasoned that if the words appeared before the questions (i.e., the word-first paradigm) under intentional learning instructions, the LOP effect would disappear. However, when he conducted experiments using the word-first paradigm, the effect remained. We conducted 2 experiments to try to explain this puzzle. In the first experiment, we replicated Craik’s findings in one condition, and in other conditions we asked subjects to make judgments of learning (JOLs) in an attempt to eliminate the LOP effect because JOLs seem to promote deep processing. However, the LOP effect still occurred, albeit in attenuated form. In Experiment 2, we tested 2 new conditions to overcome and explain the LOP effect in the word-first paradigm. In one case, subjects were instructed to use idiosyncratic study strategies to memorize the word; the second condition required subjects to perform pleasantness judgments on the words. The pleasantness rating condition eliminated the LOP effect, but the first did not. We conclude that in the word-first paradigm, subjects typically keep the word in mind without semantic processing using rote rehearsal, despite intentional learning instructions.

中文翻译：

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解决处理水平研究中的一个谜团：单词优先范式

摘要 在标准处理水平 (LOP) 范式中，向受试者提出一个问题，指导他们注意即将出现的单词的表面特征（大小写）、语音特征（押韵）或语义特征（类别）。回答问题极大地影响了单词的回忆和识别，而这种结果归因于单词的不同 LOP。Craik (1977) 推断，如果在有意识的学习指导下，单词出现在问题之前（即单词优先范式），LOP 效应就会消失。然而，当他使用单词优先范式进行实验时，效果仍然存在。我们进行了 2 个实验来试图解释这个谜题。在第一个实验中，我们在一个条件下复制了 Craik 的发现，在其他情况下，我们要求受试者做出学习判断（JOL）以试图消除 LOP 效应，因为 JOL 似乎促进了深度处理。然而，LOP 效应仍然存在，尽管以减弱的形式出现。在实验 2 中，我们测试了 2 个新条件来克服和解释单词优先范式中的 LOP 效应。在一个案例中，受试者被要求使用特殊的学习策略来记忆单词；第二个条件要求受试者对单词进行愉快判断。愉快评级条件消除了 LOP 效应，但第一个没有。我们得出的结论是，在单词优先范式中，尽管有有意的学习指导，但受试者通常会在没有语义处理的情况下使用死记硬背来记住单词。