Anatomical complications of the craniofacial regions often present considerable challenges to the surgical repair or replacement of the damaged tissues. Surgical repair has its own set of limitations, including scarcity of the donor tissues, immune rejection, use of immune suppressors followed by the surgery, and restriction in restoring the natural aesthetic appeal. Rapid advancement in the field of biomaterials, cell biology, and engineering has helped scientists to create cellularized skeletal muscle-like structures. However, the existing method still has limitations in building large, highly vascular tissue with clinical application. With the advance in the three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technique, scientists and clinicians now can produce the functional implants of skeletal muscles and bones that are more patient-specific with the perfect match to the architecture of their craniofacial defects. Craniofacial tissue regeneration using 3D bioprinting can manage and eliminate the restrictions of the surgical transplant from the donor site. The concept of creating the new functional tissue, exactly mimicking the anatomical and physiological function of the damaged tissue, looks highly attractive. This is crucial to reduce the donor site morbidity and retain the esthetics. 3D bioprinting can integrate all three essential components of tissue engineering, that is, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and regeneration of the lost craniofacial tissues. Such integration essentially helps to develop the patient-specific treatment plans and damage site-driven creation of the functional implants for the craniofacial defects. This article is the bird's eye view on the latest development and application of 3D bioprinting in the regeneration of the skeletal muscle tissues and their application in restoring the functional abilities of the damaged craniofacial tissue. We also discussed current challenges in craniofacial bone vascularization and gave our view on the future direction, including establishing the interactions between tissue-engineered skeletal muscle and the peripheral nervous system.

中文翻译：

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三维生物打印颅面组织工程的生物医学应用

颅面部区域的解剖并发症通常对受损组织的手术修复或替换提出相当大的挑战。手术修复有其自身的局限性，包括供体组织的稀缺、免疫排斥、手术后使用免疫抑制剂以及恢复自然美观的限制。生物材料、细胞生物学和工程学领域的快速发展帮助科学家创建了细胞化的骨骼肌样结构。然而，现有方法在构建大的、富含血管的组织并应用于临床方面仍然存在局限性。随着三维 (3D) 生物打印技术的进步，科学家和临床医生现在可以生产骨骼肌和骨骼的功能性植入物，这些植入物更具患者特异性，并且与颅面缺陷的结构完美匹配。使用 3D 生物打印进行颅面组织再生可以管理和消除供体部位手术移植的限制。创建新的功能组织的概念，完全模仿受损组织的解剖和生理功能，看起来非常有吸引力。这对于降低供体部位发病率和保持美观至关重要。3D生物打印可以整合组织工程的所有三个基本组成部分，即丢失颅面组织的康复、重建和再生。这种整合本质上有助于制定针对患者的治疗计划，并根据损伤部位创建针对颅面缺陷的功能性植入物。本文鸟瞰生物3D打印在骨骼肌组织再生中的最新进展和应用及其在恢复受损颅面组织功能方面的应用。我们还讨论了颅面骨血管化当前面临的挑战，并对未来方向提出了看法，包括建立组织工程骨骼肌与周围神经系统之间的相互作用。