Most U.S. studies that report racial/ethnic disparities in increased risk of low birth weight associated with air pollution exposures have been conducted in California or northeastern states and/or urban areas, limiting generalizability of study results. Few of these studies have examined maternal racial/ethnic groups other than Non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White and Hispanic, nor have they included paternal race. We aimed to examine the independent effects of PM2.5 on birth weight among a nationally representative sample of U.S. singleton infants and how both maternal and paternal race/ethnicity modify relationships between prenatal PM2.5 exposures and birth outcomes. We used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS–B), a longitudinal nationally representative cohort of 10,700 U.S. children born in 2001, which we linked to U.S.EPA’s Community Multi-scale Air Quality (CMAQ)-derived predicted daily PM2.5 concentrations at the centroid of each Census Bureau Zip Code Tabulation Area (ZCTA) for maternal residences. We examined relationships between term birthweight (TBW), term low birthweight rate (TLBW) and gestational PM2.5 pollutant using multivariate regression models. Effect modification of air pollution exposures on birth outcomes by maternal and paternal race was evaluated using stratified models. All analyses were conducted with sample weights to provide national-scale estimates. The majority of mothers were White (61%). Fourteen percent of mothers identified as Black, 21% as Hispanic, 3% Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) and 1% American Indian and Alaskan Native (AIAN). Fathers were also racially/ethnically diverse with 55% identified as White Non-Hispanic, 10% as Black Non-Hispanic, 19% as Hispanic, 3% as AAPI and 1% as AIAN. Results from the chi-square and ANOVA tests of significance for racial/ethnic differences indicate disparities in prenatal exposures and birth outcomes by both maternal and paternal race/ethnicity. Prenatal PM2.5 was associated with reduced birthweights during second and third trimester and over the entire gestational period in adjusted regression models, although results did not reach statistical significance. In models stratified by maternal race and paternal race, one unit increase in PM2.5 was statistically significantly associated with lower birthweights among AAPI mothers, -5.6 g (95% CI:-10.3, -1.0 g) and AAPI fathers, -7.6 g (95% CI: -13.1, -2.1 g) during 3rd trimester and among births where father’s race was not reported, -14.2 g (95% CI: -24.0, -4.4 g). These data suggest that paternal characteristics should be used, in addition to maternal characteristics, to describe the risks of adverse birth outcomes. Additionally, our study suggests that serious consideration should be given to investigating environmental and social mechanisms, such as air pollution exposures, as potential contributors to disparities in birth outcomes among AAPI populations.

中文翻译：

---

父母双方都很重要：对父母种族/民族、产前 PM2.5 暴露差异以及对出生结果的相关影响的全国范围分析

大多数报告种族/民族差异与空气污染暴露相关的低出生体重风险增加的美国研究都是在加利福尼亚或东北部各州和/或城市地区进行的，这限制了研究结果的普遍性。除了非西班牙裔黑人、非西班牙裔白人和西班牙裔之外，这些研究中很少有研究母体种族/族裔群体，也没有包括父系种族。我们旨在研究 PM2.5 对具有全国代表性的美国单胎婴儿样本中出生体重的独立影响，以及母系和父系种族/民族如何改变产前 PM2.5 暴露与出生结果之间的关系。我们使用了幼儿纵向研究的数据，出生队列 (ECLS-B)，这是一个具有全国代表性的纵向队列，由 2001 年出生的 10,700 名美国儿童组成，我们将其与 USEPA 的社区多尺度空气质量 (CMAQ) 得出的预测的每日 PM2.5 浓度相关联，该浓度位于每个人口普查局邮政编码制表区 (ZCTA) 中心的孕产妇住宅。我们使用多元回归模型检查了足月出生体重 (TBW)、足月低出生体重率 (TLBW) 和妊娠期 PM2.5 污染物之间的关系。使用分层模型评估了空气污染暴露对母系和父系种族出生结果的影响。所有分析均使用样本权重进行，以提供全国范围的估计。大多数母亲是白人（61%）。14% 的母亲被认定为黑人，21% 为西班牙裔，3% 为亚裔美国人和太平洋岛民 (AAPI)，1% 为美洲印第安人和阿拉斯加原住民 (AIAN)。父亲的种族/族裔也不同，55% 为非西班牙裔白人，10% 为非西班牙裔黑人，19% 为西班牙裔，3% 为 AAPI，1% 为 AIAN。种族/民族差异显着性的卡方和 ANOVA 检验结果表明，母系和父系种族/民族在产前暴露和出生结果方面存在差异。在调整后的回归模型中，产前 PM2.5 与孕中期和孕晚期以及整个孕期的出生体重降低有关，尽管结果没有达到统计学意义。在按母亲种族和父亲种族分层的模型中，PM2.5 增加一个单位与 AAPI 母亲 -5.6 g（95% CI：-10.3，-1.0 g）和 AAPI 父亲 -7.6 g 出生体重降低有统计学显着相关性（95% CI：-13.1，-2。1 g) 在第三孕期和未报告父亲种族的分娩中，-14.2 g (95% CI: -24.0, -4.4 g)。这些数据表明，除了母亲特征外，还应使用父亲特征来描述不良分娩结局的风险。此外，我们的研究表明，应认真考虑调查环境和社会机制，例如空气污染暴露，作为 AAPI 人群出生结果差异的潜在因素。