Objectives

The aim of the present study is to explore whether there is a temporal association between anti-Islamic online and offline hate, and if so in which direction.

Methods

We used data on hateful Twitter content, and hate incidents and hate crimes/offences recorded by the Metropolitan Police Service in the United Kingdom to analyse this association, using time-series analysis. This study is unique in its use of newly developed technology to undertake big data analysis with recent, disaggregated online and offline hate data.

Results

Our study examined the ‘everyday’ incidents of (online and offline) hate that affect communities throughout the United Kingdom and we found that anti-Islamic hate speech followed rather than preceded Islamophobic hate offline.

Conclusions

Our findings likely point to what we have referred to as compound retaliation, which suggests that media and social media dissemination about offline acts of hate compound already tense intergroup hostilities, providing further permission for those to express hatred online. Such a situation represents the compounding of hate and hostility through offline and online networks that are likely to be reinforcing.

中文翻译：

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言行中的仇恨：在线和离线伊斯兰恐惧症之间的时间关联

目标

本研究的目的是探讨反伊斯兰的在线和离线仇恨之间是否存在时间关联，如果存在，则在哪个方向。

方法

我们使用关于仇恨 Twitter 内容的数据，以及英国大都会警察局记录的仇恨事件和仇恨犯罪/罪行，使用时间序列分析来分析这种关联。这项研究的独特之处在于它使用新开发的技术对最近的、分解的在线和离线仇恨数据进行大数据分析。

结果

我们的研究调查了影响整个英国社区的（在线和离线）仇恨的“日常”事件，我们发现反伊斯兰仇恨言论紧随其后而不是在线下的仇视伊斯兰仇恨之前。

结论

我们的调查结果可能指向我们所说的复合报复，这表明媒体和社交媒体传播有关线下仇恨行为的行为已经使群体间敌对行动变得紧张，这为在线表达仇恨提供了进一步的许可。这种情况代表仇恨和敌意通过可能会加强的离线和在线网络而加剧。