Organoids are three-dimensional structures that self-organize from human pluripotent stem cells or primary tissue, potentially serving as a traceable and manipulatable platform to facilitate our understanding of organogenesis. Despite the ongoing advancement in generating organoids of diverse systems, biological applications of in vitro generated organoids remain as a major challenge in part due to a substantial lack of intricate complexity. The studies of development and regeneration enumerate the essential roles of highly diversified nonepithelial populations such as mesenchyme and endothelium in directing fate specification, morphogenesis, and maturation. Furthermore, organoids with physiological and homeostatic functions require direct and indirect inter-organ crosstalk recapitulating what is seen in organogenesis. We herein review the evolving organoid technology at the cell, tissue, organ, and system level with a main emphasis on endoderm derivatives.

类器官是由人类多能干细胞或原代组织自组织而成的三维结构，有可能作为一个可追踪和可操作的平台，以促进我们对器官发生的理解。尽管在生成不同系统的类器官方面不断取得进展，但体外生成的类器官的生物学应用仍然是一个主要挑战，部分原因是其严重缺乏复杂性。发育和再生的研究列举了高度多样化的非上皮细胞群（例如间充质和内皮细胞）在指导命运规范、形态发生和成熟中的重要作用。此外，具有生理和稳态功能的类器官需要直接和间接的器官间串扰，以概括器官发生中所见的情况。我们在此回顾了细胞、组织、器官和系统水平上不断发展的类器官技术，主要重点是内胚层衍生物。