Large segmental bone loss and bone resection due to trauma and/or the presence of tumors and cysts often results in a delay in healing or non-union. Currently, the bone autograft is the most frequently used strategy to manage large bone loss. Nevertheless, autograft harvesting has limitations, namely sourcing of autograft material, the requirement of an invasive procedure, and susceptibility to infection. These disadvantages can result in complications and the development of a bone substitute materials offers a potential alternative to overcome these shortcomings. Among the biomaterials under consideration to date, beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) has emerged as a promising material for bone regeneration applications due to its osteoconductivity and osteoinductivity properties as well as its superior degradation in vivo. However, current evidence suggests the use β-TCP can in fact delay bone healing and mechanisms for this observation are yet to be comprehensively investigated. In this review, we introduce the broad application of β-TCP in tissue engineering and discuss the different approaches that β-TCP scaffolds are customized, including physical modification (e.g., pore size, porosity and roughness) and the incorporation of metal ions or other materials (e.g., bioactive glass). We subsequently discuss how β-TCP can regulate osteogenic processes to aid bone repair/healing, namely osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, formation of blood vessels, release of angiogenic growth factors, and blood clot formation. By way of this review, a deeper understanding of the basic mechanisms of β-TCP for bone repair will be achieved which will aid in the optimization of strategies to promote bone repair and regeneration.

中文翻译：

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β-磷酸三钙（β-TCP）在组织工程中的应用现状及其调控成骨的机制

由于外伤和/或肿瘤和囊肿的存在，大量节段性骨丢失和骨切除通常会导致愈合延迟或不愈合。目前，自体骨移植是管理大量骨质流失最常用的策略。然而，自体移植物收获具有局限性，即自体移植物材料的来源、侵入性手术的要求以及对感染的易感性。这些缺点会导致并发症，而骨替代材料的开发提供了克服这些缺点的潜在替代方案。在迄今为止考虑的生物材料中，β-磷酸三钙（β-TCP）由于其骨传导性和骨诱导性特性以及其在体内的优异降解性而成为一种有前途的骨再生应用材料。然而，目前的证据表明，β-TCP 的使用实际上可以延迟骨愈合，这种观察的机制还有待全面研究。在这篇综述中，我们介绍了 β-TCP 在组织工程中的广泛应用，并讨论了定制 β-TCP 支架的不同方法，包括物理修饰（例如，孔径、孔隙率和粗糙度）以及金属离子或其他物质的掺入。材料（例如，生物活性玻璃）。我们随后讨论了 β-TCP 如何调节成骨过程以帮助骨修复/愈合，即间充质干细胞的成骨分化、血管的形成、血管生成生长因子的释放和血凝块的形成。通过这次审查，