While wind energy remains a preferred source of renewable energy, understanding the full spectrum of impacts are vital to balance climate-related benefits against their costs to biodiversity. Environmental impact assessments often fail to assess cumulative effects at larger spatial scales. In this respect, life cycle assessments are better suited, but have to date mainly focused on greenhouse gas emissions and energy accounting. Here, we adapt a recent global life-cycle impact assessment (LCA) methodology to evaluate collision, disturbance and habitat loss impacts of onshore wind energy development on bird species richness in Norway. The advantage of a local model for Norway is that it enables employing species distribution models to more accurately estimate the potential distribution area of species. This facilitates more realistic site- and species-specific assessments of potential impacts within a local scale but excludes habitat ranges outside Norway. Furthermore, a new characterization factor was developed for potential barrier effects. Larger onshore wind-power plants overall had greater site-specific potentially disappeared fractions (PDF) of species, while smaller plants were less efficiently located with greater impacts per GWh. Overall, Norwegian wind-power plants were sited least efficiently (PDF/GWh) regarding indirect habitat loss (2.186 × 10⁻⁹) and disturbance (1.219 × 10⁻⁹), followed by direct habitat loss (0.932 × 10⁻⁹), and finally collisions (0.040 × 10⁻⁹) and barriers (0.310 × 10⁻⁹). Vulnerability differed among bird groups with seabirds, raptors and waterfowl emerging as the most impacted groups (e.g. 5.143 × 10⁻⁹, 3.409 × 10⁻⁹ and 3.139 × 10⁻⁹ PDF/GWh for disturbance, respectively); highlighting the sympatric distribution of their habitats and the majority of Norway's onshore wind-power plants. Current practice has not succeeded in avoiding sites with higher impacts for birds, fuelling conflicts surrounding environmental concerns of onshore wind energy development in Norway. Operative LCA models can help decision-makers assessing localized life-cycle environmental impacts to support environmental-friendly wind energy production in specific regions.

虽然风能仍然是可再生能源的首选来源，但了解全方位的影响对于平衡气候相关利益与生物多样性成本至关重要。环境影响评估通常无法评估更大空间尺度上的累积影响。在这方面，生命周期评估更适合，但迄今为止主要侧重于温室气体排放和能源核算。在这里，我们采用最近的全球生命周期影响评估 (LCA) 方法来评估陆上风能开发对挪威鸟类物种丰富度的碰撞、干扰和栖息地丧失的影响。挪威本地模型的优势在于它能够采用物种分布模型来更准确地估计物种的潜在分布区域。这有助于在当地范围内对潜在影响进行更现实的地点和物种特定评估，但不包括挪威以外的栖息地范围。此外，为潜在的屏障效应开发了一个新的特征因子。总体而言，较大的陆上风力发电厂具有更大的特定地点的物种潜在消失部分 (PDF)，而较小的工厂定位效率较低，每 GWh 的影响更大。总体而言，就间接栖息地丧失 (2.186 × 10 总体而言，较大的陆上风力发电厂具有更大的特定地点的物种潜在消失部分 (PDF)，而较小的工厂定位效率较低，每 GWh 的影响更大。总体而言，就间接栖息地丧失 (2.186 × 10 总体而言，较大的陆上风力发电厂具有更大的特定地点的物种潜在消失部分 (PDF)，而较小的工厂定位效率较低，每 GWh 的影响更大。总体而言，就间接栖息地丧失 (2.186 × 10^-9 ) 和干扰 (1.219 × 10 ^-9 )，然后是直接栖息地丧失 (0.932 × 10 ^-9 )，最后是碰撞 (0.040 × 10 ^-9 ) 和障碍物 (0.310 × 10 ^-9 )。鸟类群体之间的脆弱性不同，海鸟、猛禽和水禽是受影响最大的群体（例如 5.143 × 10 ^-9、3.409 × 10 ^-9和 3.139 × 10 ^-9PDF/GWh 分别为干扰）；突出其栖息地的同域分布和挪威大部分陆上风力发电厂。目前的做法未能成功避开对鸟类影响较大的地点，从而加剧了围绕挪威陆上风能开发环境问题的冲突。可操作的 LCA 模型可以帮助决策者评估局部生命周期环境影响，以支持特定区域的环境友好型风能生产。