Why are the Black brownstone owners and landlords in Harlem and Brooklyn disproportionately West Indian? For students of housing discrimination, Black West Indian Americans have long presented a quandary. West Indian Americans generally own and rent higher quality housing than African Americans. These advantages began long ago. For example, when racial covenants, that is, restrictions barring certain racial and ethnic groups from owning real property were rife in New York, many West Indians were still able to buy into tony neighborhoods despite the pervasiveness of institutionalized residential segregation. Eschewing more traditional explanations in the civil rights literature, I apply the literature in which racial segregation in real property ownership is conceived as a racialized monopoly in which racial cartels appropriate anti-competitive techniques to monopolize access to real property. Maintaining a racial cartel is dependent on White owners uniformly refusing to sell. Importantly, West Indian realtors were experts at finding defectors, namely Whites willing to break norms of racial exclusivity and sell, in exchange for their ability to extract a premium. West Indian brokers could act in confidence because they had cash-rich clients and were often buying property in trust (de facto if not de jure) for fellow West Indians. In so doing, West Indian brokers in New York were simply replicating techniques that had been utilized by their land-brokering ancestors. I discuss the history that “previews” this period in New York, albeit in a different context: in the British West Indian islands from which the migrants originated. There are repeated instances of Blacks “busting” White monopolies in landownership, throughout the West Indian colonies in contravention of racial norms in the British colonies of who was allowed to own land and where. Upon arrival in New York, West Indians encountered another racial monopoly in real property ownership, namely Northern racial segregation. They essentially transferred the same techniques that they had utilized in the West Indies to break into White neighborhoods in New York.

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为什么黑人房主更有可能是加勒比裔美国人而不是纽约的非洲裔美国人：早期西印度移民如何打破住房中的种族卡特尔的理论

为什么哈莱姆区和布鲁克林区的黑人褐砂石业主和房东不成比例地是西印度人？对于住房歧视的学生来说，黑人西印度裔美国人长期以来一直处于困境之中。西印度裔美国人通常拥有和租用比非裔美国人更高质量的住房。这些优势从很久以前就开始了。例如，当种族契约，即禁止某些种族和族裔群体拥有房地产的限制在纽约盛行时，尽管制度化的居住隔离普遍存在，许多西印度人仍然能够购买到托尼社区。避开民权文献中更传统的解释，我应用了将不动产所有权中的种族隔离视为种族垄断的文献，其中种族卡特尔采用反竞争技术来垄断对不动产的使用权。维持种族卡特尔取决于白人所有者一致拒绝出售。重要的是，西印度房地产经纪人是寻找脱北者的专家，即愿意打破种族排他性规范并出售的白人，以换取他们提取溢价的能力。西印度经纪人可以放心行事，因为他们拥有现金充裕的客户，并且经常以信托形式（事实上，如果不是法律上的话）为西印度同胞购买房产。这样做，纽约的西印度经纪人只是在复制他们的土地经纪人祖先使用的技术。我讨论了在纽约“预览”这一时期的历史，尽管是在不同的背景下：在移民起源的英属西印度群岛。在整个西印度殖民地，黑人“破坏”白人在土地所有权方面的垄断一再发生，这违反了英国殖民地关于谁被允许拥有土地和在哪里拥有土地的种族规范。抵达纽约后，西印度人在房地产所有权方面遇到了另一种种族垄断，即北方种族隔离。他们基本上转移了他们在西印度群岛用来闯入纽约白人社区的相同技术。在整个西印度殖民地，这违反了英国殖民地关于谁被允许拥有土地和在哪里拥有的种族规范。抵达纽约后，西印度人在房地产所有权方面遇到了另一种种族垄断，即北方种族隔离。他们基本上转移了他们在西印度群岛用来闯入纽约白人社区的相同技术。在整个西印度殖民地，这违反了英国殖民地关于谁被允许拥有土地和在哪里拥有的种族规范。抵达纽约后，西印度人在房地产所有权方面遇到了另一种种族垄断，即北方种族隔离。他们基本上转移了他们在西印度群岛用来闯入纽约白人社区的相同技术。