Urban parks and gardens provide cultural and aesthetic services critical for human well-being. Yet, they represent one of the main reasons for the intentional introduction of ornamental species, some of which can escape and establish in natural ecosystems. Besides aesthetic reasons, climate and socioeconomic factors can also modulate which species are planted in urban parks. Here, we evaluate the relationship between traits of 486 ornamental woody species from 46 Spanish urban parks and climatic and socioeconomic variables. We specifically assessed how plant traits, climatic, and socioeconomic factors are related to the proportion of non-native species and, among them, to the proportion of established non-native species in Spain. Overall, we found clear associations between species traits and climatic variables. Most notably, parks with warmer winters have more plant species with conspicuous flowers, whereas parks with colder winters and a more continental climate have more species with higher tolerances to cold and shade. Most of the species recorded in our study are non-native (82 %). Higher proportions of non-native species in urban parks were positively associated with towns with large size homes and inhabitants with higher median age but negatively related to parks with species with a higher hardiness-zone range. Moreover, a greater proportion of non-native species that can establish in the natural ecosystems was found in parks with lower continentality conditions. Our results show that Spanish urban parks have an overwhelming proportion of non-native woody species, some of which have the potential to establish, and that the variation in their proportions can be explained by climatic, and socioeconomic factors.

城市公园和花园提供对人类福祉至关重要的文化和审美服务。然而，它们代表了有意引入观赏物种的主要原因之一，其中一些可以逃脱并在自然生态系统中建立。除了审美原因，气候和社会经济因素也可以调节在城市公园种植哪些物种。在这里，我们评估了来自 46 个西班牙城市公园的 486 种观赏木本物种的特征与气候和社会经济变量之间的关系。我们专门评估了植物性状、气候和社会经济因素如何与非本地物种的比例相关，其中与西班牙已建立的非本地物种的比例相关。总的来说，我们发现物种特征和气候变量之间存在明显的关联。最为显着地，冬季较暖和的公园有较多花朵显眼的植物种类，而冬季较冷、大陆性气候较多的公园有较多耐寒和耐阴的植物种类。我们研究中记录的大多数物种都是非本地物种（82%）。城市公园中较高比例的非本地物种与拥有大型住宅的城镇和中等年龄较高的居民呈正相关，但与具有较高抗寒区范围的物种的公园呈负相关。此外，在大陆性条件较低的公园中发现了更多可以在自然生态系统中建立的非本地物种。我们的结果表明，西班牙城市公园拥有绝大多数非本地木本物种，其中一些有潜力建立，