Women's ability to control their fertility through contraception and abortion has been shown to contribute to improvements in education and employment. At the same time, their employment and wages decline substantially when they transition to motherhood. About one-third of births are unintended, and it is unknown whether the impact of motherhood on employment, hours, and wages is smaller for women who planned their transition into motherhood compared with those who did not. To explore this, we examine fixed-effects models that estimate labor market outcomes using panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979-2014. We estimate models for Black and White women and find that the relationship between motherhood and employment is significantly more negative among White women who plan their transition into motherhood than among those who have an unplanned first birth. Among those who remain employed, we find that those with a planned first birth work fewer hours and have lower wages relative to those with unplanned births. We do not find significant evidence that the association between motherhood and labor market outcomes differs by fertility planning among Black women. Prior research shows how women's choices are structurally constrained by sociocultural norms and expectations and by a labor market that may not readily accommodate motherhood. In this context, our findings may reflect differences in women's motherhood and employment preferences and their ability to act on those preferences. Our analysis also makes a novel contribution to the large body of research that associates unplanned births with negative outcomes.

中文翻译：

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对于计划过渡到母亲的女性来说，母亲身份对女性就业和工资的影响是否有所不同？

妇女通过避孕和堕胎控制生育的能力已被证明有助于改善教育和就业。与此同时，当她们过渡为母亲时，她们的就业和工资大幅下降。大约三分之一的生育是无意的，对于计划过成为母亲的女性来说，母亲身份对就业、工作时间和工资的影响是否小于没有计划生育的女性尚不清楚。为了探索这一点，我们使用来自 1979-2014 年全国青年纵向调查的面板数据检查了估计劳动力市场结果的固定效应模型。我们估计了黑人和白人女性的模型，发现在计划过渡为母亲的白人女性中，母性与就业之间的关系比那些计划外第一次生育的女性更为消极。在那些仍然有工作的人中，我们发现与计划外生育的人相比，计划生育的人工作时间更少，工资也更低。我们没有发现重要的证据表明母性和劳动力市场结果之间的关联因黑人女性的生育计划而异。先前的研究表明，女性的选择如何在结构上受到社会文化规范和期望以及可能不容易适应母亲身份的劳动力市场的限制。在这种情况下，我们的研究结果可能反映了女性在 母性和就业偏好以及他们根据这些偏好采取行动的能力。我们的分析还对将计划外分娩与负面结果联系起来的大量研究做出了新的贡献。