Insect and mite galls on land plants have a fair fossil record of damage types (DTs), ichnotaxa and informally described gall morphotypes. The earliest gall is on a liverwort of the Middle Devonian Period at 385 million years ago (Ma). A 70 million-year-long absence of documented gall activity ensues. Gall activity resumes during the Pennsylvanian Period (315 Ma) on vegetative and reproductive axial organs of horsetails, ferns and probably conifers, followed by diversification of early hemipteroid lineages on seed-plant foliage during the Permian Period. The end-Permian (P-Tr) evolutionary and ecological crisis extinguished most gall lineages; survivors diversified whose herbivore component communities surpassed pre-P-Tr levels within 10 million years in the mid Triassic (242 Ma). During the late Triassic and Jurassic Period new groups of galling insects colonized Ginkgoales, Bennettitales, Pinales, Gnetales and other gymnosperms but data are sparse. Diversifying mid Cretaceous (125–90 Ma) angiosperms hosted a major expansion of 25 gall DTs organized as herbivore component communities, each present on early lineages of Austrobaileyales, Laurales, Chloranthales and Eurosidae in the Dakota Fm (103 Ma). Gall diversification continued into the Ora Fm (92 Ma) of Israel with another 25 gall morphotypes, but on a different spectrum of plant hosts, revealing the earliest occurrence of parasitoid attack. The End-Cretaceous (K-Pg) extinction event (66 Ma) almost extinguished host-specialist DTs; surviving gall lineages expanded to pre-K-Pg level 10 million years later at the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) (56 Ma), during a dramatic increase of land surface temperatures and elevated atmospheric pCO2 levels that significantly increased herbivory levels, although gall diversity increased only after the PETM excursion and during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). After the EECO, modern (or structurally convergent) gall morphotypes originate in the mid-Paleogene (49–40) on hosts different than their modern analogs. During subsequent global aridification of the early Neogene ( 20 Ma) the Czech Republic records several modern associations with gallers and plant hosts congeneric with modern analogs. Except for 21 gall DTs from New Zealand, the gall record decreases in richness; an early Pleistocene (3 Ma) study documents a plant species surviving in northern Iran with decreasing host specificity.

中文翻译：

---

胆虫节肢动物的生态与进化：来自陆地化石记录的模式

陆地植物上的昆虫和螨虫的have虫具有良好的化石记录，包括损害类型（DTs），鱼鳞目和非正式描述的gall虫形态型。最早的胆汁是在3.85亿年前（马）的泥盆纪中期的地精。随之而来的是7000万年的无胆活动的记录。在宾夕法尼亚时期（315 Ma），马尾，蕨类植物和可能的针叶树的营养和生殖轴器官恢复了胆活动，随后在二叠纪期间种子植物叶子上的早期半萜类谱系多样化。二叠纪末期（P-Tr）的进化和生态危机消除了大多数胆系。在三叠纪中部（242 Ma），其食草动物成分群落在1000万年内超过了P-Tr的水平，幸存者因此而多样化。在三叠纪和侏罗纪晚期，新的groups虫昆虫定居在银杏树，本尼特塔利斯，Pinales，Gnetales和其他裸子植物上，但数据很少。白垩纪中段（125-90 Ma）的被子植物种类繁多，主要是由草食动物组成的25胆DTs组成，每一个都存在于达科他Fm（103 Ma）中的Austrobaileyales，Laurales，Chantranthales和Eurosidae的早期世系。的多样化继续进入以色列的Ora Fm（92 Ma），具有另外25个gall的形态型，但在不同种类的植物宿主上，揭示了最早发生的类寄生虫袭击。白垩纪末（K-Pg）灭绝事件（66 Ma）几乎消灭了宿主专家DT。一千万年后的古新世-始新世热最大值（PETM）（56 Ma），幸存的胆谱系扩展到了K-Pg之前的水平，在陆地表面温度急剧升高和大气中pCO2含量升高的情况下，草食动物的含量显着增加，尽管胆汁多样性仅在PETM偏移后和始新世气候最佳时期（EECO）才增加。在EECO之后，现代的（或结构趋同的）胆形态型起源于古近纪中期（49–40），宿主的形态不同于现代类似物。在随后的新近纪早期（20 Ma）全球干旱化过程中，捷克共和国记录了数个与盖勒和现代类似物同属的植物寄主的现代关联。除了来自新西兰的21胆汁DTs外，胆汁的丰富度有所下降。早期的更新世（3 Ma）研究记录了在伊朗北部幸存的植物物种，其宿主特异性降低。