Despite the wide recognition that strongly interacting species can influence distributions of other species, species interactions are often disregarded when assessing or projecting biodiversity distributions. In particular, it remains largely uncharted the extent to which the disappearance of a keystone species cast repercussions in the species composition of future communities. We tested whether an avian top predator can exert both positive and negative effects on spatial distribution of other species, and if these effects persist even after the predator disappeared. We acquired bird count data at different distances from occupied and non-occupied nests of Northern goshawks Accipiter gentilis. Using a Bayesian joint species distribution model, we found that large bird species (preferred prey) are less abundant in the proximity of nests occupied by goshawks, whereas smaller species –expected to get protection from subordinate predators displaced by goshawks– more often showed an opposite association. These spatial differences level off gradually, but still persist for years after the goshawks have disappeared. This indicates that the composition of local bird populations and communities might be conditional on past species interactions. Therefore, endeavors centered around species distributions could largely benefit from acknowledging the local extinction of keystone species.

中文翻译：

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鹰的幽灵：顶级捕食者塑造时空中的鸟类群落

尽管人们广泛认识到强烈相互作用的物种会影响其他物种的分布，但是在评估或预测生物多样性分布时，物种相互作用常常被忽略。尤其是，在很大程度上，关键石种的消失对未来社区的物种构成产生了多大影响。我们测试了禽类顶级捕食者是否可以对其他物种的空间分布同时产生正面和负面影响，以及即使捕食者消失后这些影响是否仍然存在。我们从北方苍鹰“鹰Acc”（Accipiter gentilis）的被占领和未被占领的巢中获取了不同距离的鸟类计数数据。使用贝叶斯联合物种分布模型，我们发现，在苍鹰占据的巢穴附近，大型鸟类物种（首选猎物）的数量较少，而较小的物种（预期能免受苍鹰取代的下属掠食者的庇护）则往往表现出相反的关联。这些空间差异逐渐趋于平稳，但在苍鹰消失后仍持续了数年。这表明当地鸟类种群和群落的组成可能取决于过去物种之间的相互作用。因此，以物种分布为中心的努力可以从承认关键物种的局部灭绝中受益。但是在苍鹰消失之后仍然持续了很多年。这表明当地鸟类种群和群落的组成可能取决于过去物种之间的相互作用。因此，以物种分布为中心的努力可以从承认关键物种的局部灭绝中受益。但是在苍鹰消失之后仍然持续了很多年。这表明当地鸟类种群和群落的组成可能取决于过去物种之间的相互作用。因此，以物种分布为中心的努力可以从承认关键物种的局部灭绝中受益。