The multinational Monsanto effectively used a (non-existent) patent in Pakistan to block approval of locally developed genetically modified (GM) cotton seeds during 2002–2010, despite their immense popularity with farmers. Monsanto also (unsuccessfully) tried to negotiate an arrangement with the Pakistani government that would create the conditions under which Monsanto could operate without subjecting itself to market vicissitudes. The Pakistani government denied biosafety approval to local GM seeds, but biosafety concerns were just a mask to cover government's reluctance to infringe Monsanto's patent. Thus, farmers could now purchase new seeds only from the informal market where quality assurance was lacking. They were dispossessed of their right to legally buy, use, and save new seeds. Farmers' dispossession was a prerequisite to their purchase of Monsanto's seed. The seed had to become capital, so that its use was possible only within capitalist relations of production. This paper provides empirical evidence of a continuing process of dispossession through a combination of state power and market institutions.

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当种子成为资本：Bt 棉花在巴基斯坦的商业化

跨国公司孟山都在 2002 年至 2010 年期间有效地利用了巴基斯坦的一项（不存在的）专利来阻止批准当地开发的转基因 (GM) 棉花种子，尽管它们在农民中广受欢迎。孟山都还（未成功）试图与巴基斯坦政府谈判一项安排，为孟山都创造条件，使其能够在不受市场变迁影响的情况下开展业务。巴基斯坦政府拒绝批准当地转基因种子的生物安全，但生物安全问题只是掩盖政府不愿侵犯孟山都专利的面具。因此，农民现在只能从缺乏质量保证的非正式市场购买新种子。他们被剥夺了合法购买、使用和保存新种子的权利。农民 剥夺是他们购买孟山都种子的先决条件。种子必须成为资本，因此只有在资本主义生产关系中才能使用它。本文提供了通过国家权力和市场制度相结合的持续剥夺过程的经验证据。