ABSTRACT

The materials and techniques used to make Ethiopian copper and copper alloy processional crosses from the twelfth to twentieth centuries were investigated through technical study including X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF). All 20 crosses in this multi-collection study underwent XRF analysis while the eight crosses from the collection of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts additionally underwent X-radiography and scanning micro-XRF. The documentation of fabrication methods and repairs was carried out using non-destructive methods, including the application of scanning micro-XRF, which in this study, proved to be especially valuable for identifying and mapping solder and cast-on repairs. Additionally, results from XRF analysis confirmed patterns in alloy type related to cross style and chronology. Specifically, bronze was identified as the alloy used to make the earliest (twelfth – fourteenth century) crosses, while the later crosses (post fifteenth century) were found to be made of brass and gunmetal. Crosses dating to what appears to be a transitional period during the fourteenth – fifteenth century were found to be made of a greater variety of materials including copper, bronze, and brass. While the difference in alloy types found in crosses from different time periods may be related to changing preferences or access to certain metals, the mass removal of religious art in the sixteenth century could have also impacted the types of crosses that remain.

摘要

通过包括 X 射线荧光分析 (XRF) 在内的技术研究，对 12 至 20 世纪用于制造埃塞俄比亚铜和铜合金工艺十字架的材料和技术进行了调查。这项多收藏研究中的所有 20 个十字架都接受了 XRF 分析，而来自弗吉尼亚美术博物馆收藏的 8 个十字架还接受了 X 射线照相和扫描微 XRF。制造方法和维修的文档是使用无损方法进行的，包括扫描微 XRF 的应用，在本研究中，这被证明对于识别和绘制焊料和浇铸维修特别有价值。此外，XRF 分析的结果证实了与十字型和年表相关的合金类型模式。具体来说，青铜被确定为用于制造最早（十二至十四世纪）十字架的合金，而后来的十字架（十五世纪后）被发现由黄铜和青铜制成。发现可以追溯到 14 至 15 世纪的过渡时期的十字架由更多种类的材料制成，包括铜、青铜和黄铜。虽然在不同时期的十字架中发现的合金类型的差异可能与改变偏好或获得某些金属有关，但 16 世纪宗教艺术的大规模移除也可能影响了仍然存在的十字架类型。发现可以追溯到 14 至 15 世纪的过渡时期的十字架由更多种类的材料制成，包括铜、青铜和黄铜。虽然在不同时期的十字架中发现的合金类型的差异可能与改变偏好或获得某些金属有关，但 16 世纪宗教艺术的大规模移除也可能影响了仍然存在的十字架类型。发现可以追溯到 14 至 15 世纪的过渡时期的十字架由更多种类的材料制成，包括铜、青铜和黄铜。虽然在不同时期的十字架中发现的合金类型的差异可能与改变偏好或获得某些金属有关，但 16 世纪宗教艺术的大规模移除也可能影响了仍然存在的十字架类型。