Neonicotinoid insecticides (NNIs) are now popular in many agricultural systems across Africa; however, the extent of human exposures to NNIs in African countries is scarcely reported. The present study evaluates neonicotinoid exposures in the consumer population of Kumasi, a cosmopolitan city in Ghana. A total of 75 human urine samples were collected from healthy volunteers (nonfarmers, aged 13–80 yr) and analyzed with a liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry system. Seven NNIs and 3 NNI metabolites were detected in the following pattern (frequency, median concentration, maximum concentration): N-dm-acetamiprid (94.7%, 0.41 µg/L, 8.79 µg/L) > imidacloprid (70.7%, 0.15 µg/L, 211.62 µg/L) > N-(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)-N-ethyl-N′-methylformamidine (62.2%, 0.43 µg/L, 53.85 µg/L) > 2-[N-(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)-N-ethylamino]-2-(methylimino)acetic acid (56.8%, 0.10 µg/L, 3.53 µg/L) > clothianidin (40%, >limit of quantification [LOQ], 0.45 µg/L) > nitenpyram (18.7%, >LOQ, 0.14 µg/L) ≈ thiamethoxam (18.7%, >LOQ, 0.21 µg/L) > dinotefuran (12.0%, >LOQ, 1.01 µg/L) > acetamiprid (2.7%, >LOQ, 0.08 µg/L) ≈ thiacloprid (2.7%, >LOQ, 0.14 µg/L). Approximately 92% of the subjects were found to be exposed to multiple neonicotinoids simultaneously. The mean, median, and maximum imidacloprid equivalent of the relative potency factor of NNIs were found to be 1.6, 0.5, and 22.52, respectively. The median estimated daily intakes of acetamiprid, imidacloprid, and nitenpyram were 0.47, 1.27, and 0.02 µg/kg/d for females and 0.91, 0.66, and 0.08 µg/kg/d for males, respectively. The maximum daily intakes of all the NNIs were <1% of their chronic reference doses (cRfDs), except for imidacloprid and thiacloprid which recorded maximum daily intakes corresponding to 17.97 and 8.28% of cRfDs, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first biomonitoring report on neonicotinoid insecticides in Africa. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2306–2318. © 2021 SETAC

中文翻译：

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人类在加纳库马西暴露于新烟碱类物质

新烟碱类杀虫剂 (NNI) 现在在非洲的许多农业系统中很流行；然而，非洲国家人类接触 NNI 的程度却鲜有报道。本研究评估了加纳国际大都会库马西消费者群体中新烟碱类物质的暴露情况。从健康志愿者（非农民，年龄 13-80 岁）中收集了总共 75 份人体尿液样本，并用液相色谱电喷雾电离串联质谱系统进行分析。7 种 NNI 和 3 种 NNI 代谢物的检测模式如下（频率、中值浓度、最大浓度）：N -dm-啶虫脒（94.7%，0.41 µg/L，8.79 µg/L）>吡虫啉（70.7%，0.15 µg/ L, 211.62 µg/L) >  N -(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)- N -ethyl-N'-甲基甲脒(62.2%, 0.43 µg/L, 53.85 µg/L) > 2-[ N- (6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)- N-乙基氨基]-2-(甲基亚氨基)乙酸 (56.8%, 0.10 µg/L, 3.53 µg/L) > 噻虫胺 (40%, > 定量限 [LOQ], 0.45 µg/L) > 烯啶虫胺 (18.7%, >LOQ, 0.14 µg/L) ≈ 噻虫嗪 (18.7%, >LOQ, 0.21 µg/L) > 呋虫胺 (12.0%, >LOQ, 1.01 µg/L) > 啶虫脒 (2.7%, >LOQ, 0.08 µg/L) ≈ 噻虫啉 (2.7%, >LOQ, 0.14 µg/L)。发现大约 92% 的受试者同时暴露于多种新烟碱类物质。NNI 的相对效力因子的平均、中值和最大吡虫啉当量分别为 1.6、0.5 和 22.52。啶虫脒、吡虫啉和烯啶虫胺的平均每日估计摄入量分别为女性 0.47、1.27 和 0.02 µg/kg/d，男性分别为 0.91、0.66 和 0.08 µg/kg/d。所有 NNI 的最大每日摄入量为 < 其慢性参考剂量 (cRfD) 的 1%，除了吡虫啉和噻虫啉，它们记录的最大每日摄入量分别对应于 cRfD 的 17.97% 和 8.28%。据我们所知，本研究是非洲第一份关于新烟碱类杀虫剂的生物监测报告。环境毒物化学2021；40:2306–2318。© 2021 SETAC