This paper explores how property rights arrangements affect the equity, efficiency and sustainability of high-altitude rangeland management in Bhutan from the perspectives of rangeland users. Property rights affect how natural resources are allocated to individuals, communities and institutions and how they are managed. In Bhutan, only grazing rights are granted to rangeland users, as ownership of rangeland lies with the State. Three case study areas were selected across Bhutan with different levels of rangeland degradation, governance arrangements and property rights regimes. Semi-nomadic yak herders, sedentary livestock farmers and government officials participated in 40 semi-structured interviews and nine focus group discussions between 2013 and 2014. Findings revealed that historical inequities exist with private leases and some communal leases, but government-supported leases with management rights are considered more equitable. All property rights systems can become unproductive and inefficient with increasing populations, but communal areas are at greater risk of sub-optimal resource use and conflicts. Respondents were concerned about the lack of management rights, uncertainty over future lease arrangements and climate change impacts. This research revealed that (i) assignment of incomplete property rights is detrimental to efficient and sustainable natural resource management; (ii) banning of traditional practices such as burning, clearing and cutting of shrubs and bushes could undermine conservation by triggering natural resource degradation; (iii) granting of management rights in the bundle of rights is vital to encourage provisioning and maintenance activities; and (iv) in the absence of official contracts, deeds or titles which provide tenure security and political legitimacy, equitable distribution, clear boundary demarcation with written norms and rules are not sufficient to foster long-term investment in provisioning and maintenance activities. We discuss the implications of the findings for delayed implementation of the Land Act 2007 aimed at a more equitable redistribution of use rights and improved high-altitude rangeland management in Bhutan.

中文翻译：

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产权如何影响不丹高海拔牧场管理的公平性，效率和可持续性

本文从牧场使用者的角度探讨了产权安排如何影响不丹高海拔牧场管理的公平性，效率和可持续性。产权影响自然资源如何分配给个人，社区和机构，以及如何管理自然资源。在不丹，由于牧场所有权归国家所有，因此仅授予牧场使用者放牧权。在不丹各地选择了三个案例研究区域，它们具有不同程度的牧场退化，治理安排和产权制度。在2013年至2014年之间，半游牧牛牧民，久坐不动的牧民和政府官员参加了40次半结构化访谈和9次焦点小组讨论。调查结果表明，私人租赁和一些公共租赁存在历史不平等现象，但政府支持的具有管理权的租赁被认为更为公平。随着人口的增加，所有产权制度都可能变得没有生产力和效率低下，但公共区域面临资源使用不佳和冲突的更大风险。受访者担心缺乏管理权，未来租赁安排的不确定性以及气候变化的影响。这项研究表明：（i）不完全产权的转让不利于有效和可持续的自然资源管理；（ii）禁止诸如灌木，灌木丛的燃烧，清理和砍伐之类的传统习俗，可能通过触发自然资源退化而破坏养护；（iii）授予权利捆绑中的管理权对于鼓励调配和维护活动至关重要；（iv）在缺乏提供权属保障和政治合法性的官方合同，契约或产权的情况下，公平分配，明确的边界划分以及书面规范和规则不足以促进对配置和维护活动的长期投资。我们讨论了调查结果对延迟实施2007年《土地法》的影响，该法旨在更公平地重新分配使用权，并改善不丹的高海拔牧场管理。具有书面规范和规则的明确边界划分不足以促进对供应和维护活动的长期投资。我们讨论了调查结果对延迟实施2007年《土地法》的意义，该法案旨在更公平地重新分配使用权，并改善不丹的高海拔牧场管理。具有书面规范和规则的明确边界划分不足以促进对供应和维护活动的长期投资。我们讨论了调查结果对延迟实施2007年《土地法》的影响，该法旨在更公平地重新分配使用权，并改善不丹的高海拔牧场管理。