ABSTRACT

Background and purpose: Historically, sports training methodology, including soccer coaching, has been influenced by the pedagogic tend dominant in each epoch. Of late, the literature has espoused the idea that human learning is individual, nonlinear, and complex. Nonlinear Pedagogy (NLP) takes into account such nonlinearity and complex phenomena and facilitates each person's learning through a methodology of manipulating constraints. This learner–environment-centered approach conducts players and teams to a tactical behavior emerging through playing modified versions of games using a rich range of different constraints, for example the introduction of artificial rules. Despite the attractions of training based on constraints to research, few studies have empirically assessed the effects of these programs from a tactical perspective. The present study applies the NLP pedagogical principles of representativeness and constraints manipulation to provide youth sport academy coaches with empirical evidence of the training effects of modified games on team tactical behavior. Specifically, this study aimed to assess the short-term training effects of modified games introducing artificial rules on team tactical behavior during the team possession game phase in two youth soccer categories.

Methods: Thirty-two Spanish male youth soccer players from the under-14 (U14: n = 16; age: 13.0 ± 0.4 years; playing experience: 6 ± 1 years; height: 1.56 ± 0.07 m; body mass: 46.7 ± 5.9 kg) and the under-16 (U16: n = 16; age: 15.9 ± 0.4 years; playing experience: 8 ± 1 years; height: 1.70 ± 0.07 m; body mass: 57.9 ± 8.3 kg) teams of the same club participated in the study. The natural groups were not modified for the study and the participants had some prior experience with modified games. Each team was divided into two groups who played each other during a short-term intervention distributed across four training sessions: control (CON: free play without restrictions) and experimental (EXP: modified games introducing artificial rules). Team tactical behavior was assessed, including the goalkeeper (Gk) and during the team possession game phase, using a local positioning system (LPS) before and after the intervention in an 8-a-side game with the official offside rule.

Findings: Linear team tactical behavior change in centroid position, dyads, and total area values barely changed (d = trivial – small [0.01–0.34]) after a short-term intervention of free play and modified games. Team tactical behavior tended toward greater regularity (sample entropy decrease) after artificial rules were introduced in comparison with free play without restrictions. Youth sport academy coaches who opt for organized and regular behavior during the team possession game phase could employ modified games introducing artificial rules to build up repeatable tactical patterns. Conversely, those who prefer being more chaotic and unpredictable in the game could take advantage of free play without restrictions.

摘要

背景和目的: 从历史上看，包括足球教练在内的运动训练方法一直受到每个时代占主导地位的教学趋势的影响。最近，文献支持人类学习是个体的、非线性的和复杂的。非线性教育学 (NLP) 考虑到这种非线性和复杂现象，并通过操纵约束的方法促进每个人的学习。这种以学习者环境为中心的方法引导玩家和团队通过使用各种不同约束条件（例如引入人工规则）玩修改版游戏而出现的战术行为。尽管基于研究限制的培训具有吸引力，但很少有研究从战术角度对这些计划的效果进行实证评估。本研究应用 NLP 的代表性和约束操作的教学原则，为青年体育学院的教练提供修改后的游戏对团队战术行为的训练效果的经验证据。具体而言，本研究旨在评估在两个青年足球类别的团队控球比赛阶段引入人工规则对团队战术行为的修改游戏的短期训练效果。

方法：32 名 14 岁以下的西班牙男青年足球运动员（U14：n  = 16；年龄：13.0 ± 0.4 岁；比赛经验：6 ± 1 岁；身高：1.56 ± 0.07 m；体重：46.7 ± 5.9 kg) 和 16 岁以下 (U16: n = 16; 年龄：15.9 ± 0.4 岁；演奏经验：8±1年；高度：1.70±0.07 m；体重：57.9 ± 8.3 kg）同一俱乐部的球队参加了这项研究。自然组没有针对该研究进行修改，并且参与者之前有一些修改游戏的经验。每支球队被分成两组，他们在短期干预期间互相比赛，分布在四个训练课程中：控制（CON：无限制的自由比赛）和实验（EXP：引入人工规则的修改游戏）。评估团队战术行为，包括守门员 (Gk) 和团队控球比赛阶段，在官方越位规则的 8 人制比赛中，在干预前后使用本地定位系统 (LPS)。

调查结果：在免费游戏和修改游戏的短期干预后，质心位置、二元组和总面积值的线性团队战术行为变化几乎没有变化（d  = 微不足道 - 小 [0.01-0.34]）。与无限制的自由比赛相比，在引入人工规则后，团队战术行为趋向于更大的规律性（样本熵减少）。青年体育学院的教练在球队控球阶段选择有组织和有规律的行为，可以采用修改后的比赛引入人为规则来建立可重复的战术模式。相反，那些喜欢在游戏中更加混乱和不可预测的人可以不受限制地利用免费游戏。