• The Changing Jewish Family:Jewish Communal Responses to Interfaith and Same-Sex Marriage¹
• Samira K. Mehta (bio) and Brett Krutzsch (bio)

In the final three decades of the twentieth century, American Judaism, particularly its non-Orthodox movements, found itself struggling to address two new challenges to longstanding conceptions of the Jewish home: interfaith marriage and same-gender relationships.² While initially inclined to condemn both, at the end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first centuries Jewish groups wrestled with their understanding of both intermarrying Jews and gay³ Jews, ultimately coming to accept [End Page 553] more completely the latter than the former. This occurred despite the fact that the Reform movement, the largest Jewish religious movement in the United States, invested heavily in welcoming and attracting interfaith families, while only some Reform congregations focused on outreach to gay Jews.

Jewish communal responses, particularly in the Reform, Reconstructionist, and Conservative moments, to these changes in Jewish family life demonstrate that the issue at stake was primarily Jewish continuity. The rising rates of interfaith marriage (from approximately ten percent of American Jews in 1970 to approximately fifty percent of American Jews in the 1990s) and the resultant continuity "crisis" occurred simultaneously with the rise of gay rights as a public and clearly defined social movement. In this article, we track changes in communal responses to both interfaith families and gay political struggles over the past fifty years, connecting those changes to trends in interfaith family life, gay liberation politics and rhetoric, and the shifting goals of Jewish communities.

While initially opposed to religiously sanctioning same-gender relationships in the 1970s and much of the 1980s, support among Reform, Reconstructionist, and Conservative Jewish institutions for gay Jews increased as lesbians and gay men throughout the country insisted publicly that they were equal to straights and, especially among Conservative institutions, as "marriage equality" became the public face of the gay rights movement. Simultaneously, while many synagogues increased their resources for interfaith families, they also continued to frame interfaith marriage as a problem to combat. Currently, all non-Orthodox movements allow gay rabbinic ordination. But only the Renewal and Reconstructionist movements allow Jews in interfaith marriages to be ordained, with the former setting a precedent in the 1990s and the latter in 2015.⁴ This article accounts for these formal policies in light of the reality that many synagogues are more comfortable spaces for heterosexual interfaith couples and their families than they are for gay Jews, in or outside of family structures.

By historicizing the trajectories of communal responses to these two groups, we argue that Jewish institutional responses were shaped primarily by two realities. First, the movement for marriage equality and calls for gay rights are broad political issues on the national stage, [End Page 554] whereas interfaith family issues are not. We contend that as the national temperature shifted on same-gender relationships, American Jews shifted with those trends. Interfaith marriage, however, has not been part of a national political debate, and therefore, no outside forces shifted Jewish attitudes and policies accordingly. Additionally, since the 1970s, Jewish continuity has been one of the abiding preoccupations of communal Jewish life. When gay activists focused on marriage equality and the concomitant possibility of creating homes on a heteronormative model, and as protections for children were increasingly foregrounded in those debates, the rhetoric of gay rights shifted such that it lined up with Jewish communal goals around continuity. In other words, by not focusing on expansive sexual freedoms, the movement for marriage equality meant gay Jews were interested in upholding traditional Jewish institutions, not subverting them. Same-sex marriage offered the possibility of creating appropriately Jewish homes and provided a pathway for the acceptance of gay Jews more broadly, while no similar trajectory occurred for interfaith marriage.

Interfaith marriage advocates, meanwhile, have pressed against many of the restrictions placed upon them by Jewish communal organizations and have included Christmas in their homes, taken their children to church, and found other ways to include Christian traditions in their families. Additionally, though many interfaith couples have joined Jewish communities, many Jewish communal leaders continue to see and frame interfaith marriage as a serious...

• 不断变化的犹太家庭：犹太人对不同信仰和同性婚姻的反应¹
• Samira K.Mehta（生物）和Brett Krutzsch（生物）

在二十世纪的最后三十年中，美国犹太教，特别是其非东正教运动，发现自己努力应对长期存在的犹太家庭观念的两个新挑战：信仰间的婚姻和同性关系。²尽管最初倾向于谴责两者，但在20世纪末和二十一世纪初，犹太人群体努力​​地理解了通婚的犹太人和同性恋者^3的犹太人，最终接受了[End Page 553]后者比前者更完全。尽管发生了这样的事实，尽管改革运动是美国最大的犹太宗教运动，为欢迎和吸引不同信仰的家庭投入了大量资金，而只有一些改革会众关注与同性恋者的接触。

犹太人对犹太人家庭生活中的这些变化的反应，尤其是在改革，重建和保守时期，显示出所面临的问题主要是犹太人的连续性。宗教间婚姻率的上升（从1970年的美国犹太人的百分之十增加到1990年代的美国犹太人的百分之五十）和由此产生的连续性“危机”与同性恋权利的上升同时出现，这是公共场合和明确界定的社会运动的开始。 。在本文中，我们跟踪了过去五十年来社区对不同信仰家庭和同性恋政治斗争的反应的变化，并将这些变化与不同信仰家庭生活，同性恋解放政治和言论以及犹太人社区目标转变的趋势联系起来。

最初在1970年代和1980年代的大部分时间反对宗教制裁同性关系，但改革，重建和保守犹太机构对同性恋者的支持有所增加，因为全国各地的男女同性恋者都公开要求他们等于异性恋者。尤其是在保守主义机构中，“婚姻平等”成为同性恋权利运动的公众面孔。同时，虽然许多犹太教堂增加了信仰间家庭的资源，但他们也继续将信仰间婚姻定为要解决的问题。目前，所有非东正教运动都允许同性恋拉比礼拜仪式。但是，只有复兴和重建运动才允许犹太人参加信仰不同的婚姻，前者在1990年代树立了先例，后者在2015年树立了先例。⁴鉴于以下事实，本文解释了这些正式政策：在家庭结构内部或外部，与犹太同性恋者相比，许多犹太教堂对异性恋不同信仰的夫妻及其家庭而言是更舒适的空间。

通过对这两个群体的社区回应的轨迹进行历史化处理，我们认为犹太人的制度回应主要是由两个现实决定的。首先，争取婚姻平等和争取同性恋权利的运动是国家舞台上的广泛政治问题，[完页554]信仰间的家庭问题则不然。我们认为，随着国家温度在同性关系上发生转变，美国犹太人也随着这些趋势发生转变。但是，信仰间的婚姻并不是全国政治辩论的一部分，因此，没有外界力量相应地改变犹太人的态度和政策。此外，自1970年代以来，犹太人的连续性一直是犹太人共同生活的永恒关注点之一。当同性恋活动家关注婚姻平等以及随之而来的建立异性规范模式的住房的可能性时，并且随着在这些辩论中越来越多地关注对儿童的保护，同性恋权利的言论发生了变化，以致于它与围绕连续性的犹太人共同目标保持一致。换句话说，通过不关注广泛的性自由，争取婚姻平等的运动意味着同性恋犹太人有兴趣维护传统的犹太机构，而不是颠覆他们。同性婚姻为建立适当的犹太人住所提供了可能性，并为更广泛地接受同性恋犹太人提供了途径，而宗教间婚姻没有类似的轨迹发生。

同时，不同信仰间的婚姻拥护者一直反对犹太社区组织对他们施加的许多限制，并将圣诞节纳入他们的家中，将其子女带到教堂，并找到其他方式将基督教传统纳入其家庭。此外，尽管许多信仰不同的夫妇已经加入了犹太社区，但许多犹太社区领袖仍将信仰间的婚姻视为严重的婚姻并以此为框架...