The idea of targeting within universalism has been evoked frequently, usually as a best of both worlds’ strategy. The approach remains difficult to identify, however, because targeting is usually measured as the opposite of universalism. This article proposes to consider targeting and universalism as two distinct dimensions of the welfare state, the opposite of universalism being more usefully understood as residualism, and not as pro-poor targeting. Four welfare state possibilities then emerge, combining a position on the universalism/residualism axis and one on the pro-poor/pro-rich axis: universalism (France, for instance), targeting within universalism (Denmark), targeting within residualism (the United States) and pro-rich residualism (Japan). We show that targeting within universalism entails pro-poor targeting without means testing, a combination that can be achieved with limits on the earnings-relatedness of the pension system and generous transfers to the working age population. Thus understood, targeting within universalism proves to be an effective redistributive strategy, better to redistribute than mere targeting, and less costly than universalism pure and simple.

中文翻译：

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以普遍主义为目标

在普遍主义中瞄准目标的想法经常被提起，通常是两全其美的策略。但是，这种方法仍然难以识别，因为针对目标通常被认为是普遍主义的对立面。本文建议将针对性和普遍主义视为福利国家的两个不同维度，普遍主义的反面被更有用地理解为残余主义，而不是有利于穷人的针对性。然后出现了四种福利国家可能性，将在普遍主义/残余主义轴心上的立场与在扶贫/有利富裕轴心上的立场相结合：普遍主义（例如法国），针对普遍主义（丹麦），针对残余主义（美国）国家）和亲富裕的残余主义（日本）。我们证明，在普遍主义中进行针对性意味着无需进行经济状况测试就可以实现有利于穷人的目标性，可以通过限制养老金系统的收入相关性和向工作年龄人口的大量转移来实现。因此可以理解，普遍主义内部的针对性被证明是一种有效的再分配策略，比单纯的针对性更好地进行重新分配，并且比纯粹和简单的普遍主义具有更低的成本。