Abstract This paper adds to our knowledge and understanding of the time and space dimensions of the shift from an urban penalty to an urban premium effect on the biological standard of living in the second half of the nineteenth century. Although in the literature there is general agreement that urban-rural relations are part of the explanation of declining stature in the period of early economic growth (the so-called Komlos paradox), little is known about its exact timing and spatial dimensions. We use the province of Fryslân, the Netherlands, 1850–1900 as a case study to take a step towards filling this knowledge gap. The area is known for the early modernization of its agriculture, mainly specializing in dairy farming. We would expect a clear development towards an urban premium before 1900, but seek to investigate its timing and placing. This involves running a panel data regression on annual data per municipality, with annual coefficients estimated as interaction effects. The proportion of military conscripts that met the minimum height requirement is the explained variable. Population density and milk supply are the explanatory variables. Our analysis adds to the existing literature on the urban penalty and premium by, first, explicitly focusing on differences over time as well as over space in the relation between urbanization and living standards; second, by using population density data, which is a continuous variable, instead of a simple urban-rural dichotomous variable; and third, by taking into account the importance of dairy farming. The results show that the effect of the availability of milk, the dairy premium, was significantly positive over the period 1850–1900, but remained relatively constant. The effect of population density, however, shows a clear temporality, transitioning from statistically significant negative (urban penalty) to statistically significant positive (urban premium) from 1877 onwards.

中文翻译：

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1850-1900 年乳业区的生活水平：从城市惩罚到城市溢价

摘要 本文增加了我们对 19 世纪下半叶生物生活水平从城市惩罚到城市溢价效应转变的时间和空间维度的知识和理解。尽管文献中普遍认为城乡关系是早期经济增长时期地位下降的部分解释（所谓的科姆洛斯悖论），但对其确切时间和空间维度知之甚少。我们以 1850 年至 1900 年的荷兰弗里斯兰省为例，向填补这一知识空白迈出一步。该地区以早期农业现代化而闻名，主要从事奶牛养殖。我们预计在 1900 年之前会有明显的城市溢价发展，但会寻求调查其时间和位置。这涉及对每个城市的年度数据进行面板数据回归，年度系数估计为交互效应。满足最低身高要求的应征入伍军人的比例是被解释变量。人口密度和牛奶供应是解释变量。我们的分析增加了关于城市罚款和溢价的现有文献，首先，明确关注城市化与生活水平之间关系的时间和空间差异；第二，使用人口密度数据，这是一个连续变量，而不是简单的城乡二分变量；第三，考虑到奶牛养殖的重要性。结果表明，在 1850 年至 1900 年期间，牛奶供应量、乳制品溢价的影响显着为正，但保持相对稳定。然而，人口密度的影响显示出明显的时间性，从 1877 年起从统计上显着的负（城市惩罚）过渡到统计上显着的正（城市溢价）。