The Ottoman Empire had inherited the waqf (charitable foundation) as an institutionalized form of charity from the Near Eastern Islamic states, which had preceded it. Over time, new forms of charitable foundations emerged, while with the expansion of the Empire, waqfs grew in number and spread geographically. Donors created over fifty thousand charitable foundations, making them into the most widespread institution in Ottoman history. Some waqfs, the largest ones in particular, survived for many centuries. However, sometimes continued functioning was under severe threat, due to wars, epidemics, natural disasters, and rebellions. To overcome financial straits, the waqfs resorted to a variety of measures. Occasionally, a royal waqf in difficulty received assistance from other foundations established by sultans and/or their relatives. Administrators reduced current expenditures, sometimes even suspending salaries and charitable services. Moreover, through long-term lease contracts involving substantial down payments by the lessees, waqf administrators often raised the money needed to restore damaged properties. In the present paper, we study Ottoman royal waqfs when exposed to adversities and financial hardships. As administrators reacted with considerable flexibility, the claim that the waqfs were rigid institutions is in obvious need of revision.

中文翻译：

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应对 16 世纪和 17 世纪的制度和金融危机：确保奥斯曼皇家宗教组织的生存

奥斯曼帝国从之前的近东伊斯兰国家继承了 waqf（慈善基金会）作为一种制度化的慈善形式。随着时间的推移，出现了新形式的慈善基金会，而随着帝国的扩张，宗教信仰团体的数量和地理范围不断扩大。捐助者创建了五万多个慈善基金会，使它们成为奥斯曼帝国历史上最广泛的机构。一些 waqfs，特别是最大的，存活了许多世纪。然而，由于战争、流行病、自然灾害和叛乱，有时继续运作受到严重威胁。为了克服财政困难，宗教信仰组织采取了各种措施。偶尔，遇到困难的皇家宗教组织会得到苏丹和/或其亲属建立的其他基金会的援助。管理人员减少了经常性支出，有时甚至暂停工资和慈善服务。此外，通过涉及承租人大量首付的长期租赁合同，宗教信仰基金会管理人员经常筹集修复受损财产所需的资金。在本论文中，我们研究了面临逆境和经济困难时的奥斯曼皇家 waqfs。由于管理人员的反应相当灵活，关于 waqfs 是僵化机构的说法显然需要修改。当我们面临逆境和经济困难时，我们会研究奥斯曼皇家 waqfs。由于管理人员的反应相当灵活，关于 waqfs 是僵化机构的说法显然需要修改。当我们面临逆境和经济困难时，我们会研究奥斯曼皇家 waqfs。由于管理人员的反应相当灵活，关于 waqfs 是僵化机构的说法显然需要修改。