The issue of heterodoxy arises when an orthodoxy is established. Even by the Buddha’s time a large number of variant views existed. Even the Ṛksaṃhita contained hymns with contrary beliefs and opposing gods. In time the Cārvākas or materialists contested the whole fabric of beliefs represented by the Vedas. In the Buddhist case a similar deviant was found in Devadatta who is represented as opposing Gautama Buddha’s doctrines. One can also trace elements of dissent from the theologically recognised dharma in texts such as Arthaśāstra and Kāmasutra. In early mediaeval times the Jainas could be identified as the major ideological critics of Brahmanism. In today’s India, where all dissent with the official dogma is being denounced as anti-national, it is time to project history from the point of view of the so-called heretics or dissidents as well.

中文翻译：

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印度早期的异端，异端和不循规蹈矩

当建立正统时，就会出现杂合的问题。即使在佛陀时代，也存在着许多不同的观点。甚至Ṛksaṃhita也包含具有相反信仰和对立神灵的赞美诗。随着时间的流逝，卡瓦卡人或唯物主义者对吠陀经所代表的全部信仰进行了辩论。在佛教案件中，在德瓦达塔（Devadatta）发现了一个类似的反常派，他被代表反对释迦牟尼佛的教义。人们还可以在阿尔萨斯雅特拉（Arthaśāstra）和卡马苏特拉（Kāmasutra）等文本中追溯出神学公认的佛法的异议因素。在中世纪早期，Ja那教徒可以被视为婆罗门教的主要意识形态批评家。在今天的印度，所有反对官方教条的异议都被谴责为反民族的，现在该是从所谓的异端或异见人士的角度来推算历史的时候了。