Human–wildlife interfaces are increasing rapidly due to the disproportionate growth of human and wildlife populations in a spatial context. The Himalayan system, a global biodiversity hotspot, is subject to landscape modification from various anthropogenic activities. In this study, we offer insights into the human–wildlife interface, reflecting avoidance or coexistence, with implications for local and landscape management strategies. We investigated fine-scale space use and temporal activity patterns of mammalian wildlife in a human-dominated landscape, outside a protected area. The research methods involved robust digital camera trap sampling (n = 131) across the target area (116 km2) with a total human population of 153,585. We developed a new sampling strategy that accounted for spatial heterogeneity in the habitats and variations in mammalian community composition. Our results showed that, in spite of high usage and the presence of humans across the study area, 16 wild mammal species used the area with varying intensities, exploiting habitat and forage availability. Of the camera traps placed in the study area, 70.23% had overlapping captures for humans on foot and wild mammal species. Generalist species used natural, modified, and altered habitats, while herbivores remained in natural and modified areas. However, some mammals that used modified/altered areas avoided humans by modifying their temporal activity. In the context of management of large landscapes, including areas outside the protected area network, the results of this study highlight the significant plasticity exhibited by wild mammals in negotiating natural and human-modified habitats. This offers an opportunity to develop conservation management strategies focusing on these fine-scale patterns and human actions.

中文翻译：

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回避还是共存？喜马拉雅山西部以人类为主的景观中野生哺乳动物的时空分布

由于人类和野生动植物种群在空间背景下的不成比例增长，人类与野生生物之间的联系正在迅速增加。喜马拉雅系统是全球生物多样性热点，其人类活动引起的景观改变。在这项研究中，我们提供了人类与野生动物交往的见解，反映出避免或共存，并对当地和景观管理策略产生了影响。我们在保护区外的人类主导景观中调查了哺乳动物野生动植物的小型空间利用和时间活动模式。研究方法涉及在目标区域（116 km2）上进行可靠的数码相机陷阱采样（n = 131），总人口为153,585。我们开发了一种新的采样策略，该策略说明了栖息地中的空间异质性和哺乳动物群落组成的变化。我们的结果表明，尽管研究区域的使用率很高且有人类存在，但仍有16种野生哺乳动物物种以不同的强度使用该区域，并利用了栖息地和草料。在研究区域中放置的相机陷阱中，有70.23％的人类徒步和野生哺乳动物物种有重叠的捕获。通才物种使用自然，改良和改变的栖息地，而食草动物则保留在自然和改良的地区。但是，一些使用经过修改/变更的区域的哺乳动物通过修改其暂时活动来避开人类。在管理大型景观（包括保护区网络以外的区域）的背景下，这项研究的结果突显了野生哺乳动物在谈判自然和人为改变的栖息地中表现出的显着可塑性。这提供了一个机会，可针对这些精细的模式和人类行为制定保护管理策略。