The American debate over free trade and protectionism has taken many forms, but it is particularly instructive when it occurs within a single sector of the economy, pitting allied economic interests against each other. That occurred in the shipping industry in the 19th century when shippers and shipbuilders fought each other over trade‐related questions: subsidies for shipbuilding and reciprocal trade agreements with foreign nations. Shipbuilders wanted protection and subsidies; shippers wanted the freedom to make use of cheaper foreign vessels for trade and to develop trade agreements. We show how these opposing forces stymied each other and prevented the shipping industry from taking an active, unified role in national politics. These particular intra‐industry debates reveal broader divisions within the business community over the relationship between business and government under modern commercial capitalism.

中文翻译：

---

美国商业，美国帝国：19世纪后期的商人组织和贸易政策

美国对自由贸易和贸易保护主义的辩论采取了多种形式，但是当它发生在经济的一个部门中，使相关的经济利益相互抵触时，这特别有启发性。这种情况发生在19世纪的航运业中，当时，托运人和造船商就与贸易有关的问题进行了争执：造船补贴和与外国的互惠贸易协定。造船商想要保护和补贴；托运人希望自由使用廉价的外国船只进行贸易并制定贸易协议。我们展示了这些对立的力量如何相互阻碍，如何阻止航运业在国家政治中发挥积极统一的作用。