This article examines anti-Jewish violence in the Second Polish Republic through the lens of gender. By focusing on verbal and physical attacks against female Jewish students at Polish universities in the 1930s, it highlights the radicalization of the antisemitic movement among Poland’s future elite. Jewish women experienced discrimination and increasingly also violence at Polish universities as Jews and as women. The assaults suggest the need to examine both gender and Jewish differences. Although all Jewish students were targets of violent antisemitic attacks, women were especially vulnerable when they dared transgress gender boundaries by acting in “unfeminine ways” and signifying their intellectual empowerment—talking back, resisting, or defending Jewish men under attack. Indeed, Jewish women who stood up to their attackers transgressed the norms of both gender and Jewishness, and were thus doubly exposed to aggression and violence. Using the contemporary Jewish press, university archives, memoirs and testimonies, the female Jewish experience and the response of male Jewish students and community activists are reconstructed. Understanding these assaults as a window into gender politics in Jewish student associations, the Jewish press and Jewish communal institutions, the author examines their place in the public discourse of the Second Polish Republic.

中文翻译：

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越界：1930 年代波兰针对犹太妇女的暴力行为和反犹太主义的新模式

本文从性别的角度审视波兰第二共和国的反犹太暴力。通过关注 1930 年代波兰大学对女性犹太学生的口头和身体攻击，它突出了波兰未来精英中反犹太主义运动的激进化。作为犹太人和妇女，犹太妇女在波兰大学遭受歧视和越来越多的暴力。这些袭击表明有必要检查性别和犹太人的差异。尽管所有犹太学生都是反犹太主义暴力袭击的目标，但当女性敢于以“不女性化的方式”行事并表明她们的智力增强——反驳、反抗或捍卫受到攻击的犹太男性时，她们尤其容易受到伤害。确实，抵抗袭击者的犹太妇女违反了性别和犹太身份的规范，因此双倍地遭受侵略和暴力。使用当代犹太媒体、大学档案、回忆录和证词，女性犹太人的经历以及男性犹太学生和社区活动家的反应被重建。将这些攻击理解为犹太学生协会、犹太媒体和犹太社区机构中性别政治的窗口，作者审视了它们在波兰第二共和国的公共话语中的地位。女性犹太人的经历以及男性犹太学生和社区活动家的反应被重建。将这些攻击理解为了解犹太学生协会、犹太媒体和犹太社区机构中性别政治的窗口，作者审视了它们在波兰第二共和国的公共话语中的地位。女性犹太人的经历以及男性犹太学生和社区活动家的反应被重建。将这些攻击理解为犹太学生协会、犹太媒体和犹太社区机构中性别政治的窗口，作者审视了它们在波兰第二共和国的公共话语中的地位。