This paper represents the first attempt to employ a long series of repeated cross-sectional data from the Kazakhstani National Statistics as the pseudo-panel for estimating returns to schooling. We found the returns to be relatively high and internationally comparable. The cohort effect turned out to be negative, suggesting the interpretation of the business cycle’s impact. The gender gap in returns has additionally been revealed: while females tend to earn less, the returns are higher for them, which can likely be explained by gender differences in labor allocation across sectors and industries and, in turn, explains the higher levels of education amongst women.

中文翻译：

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重返哈萨克斯坦上学：使用伪面板方法的更新

本文代表了首次尝试使用来自哈萨克斯坦国家统计局的大量重复截面数据作为伪面板来估算入学率。我们发现回报率较高，在国际上可比。队列效应被证明是负面的，这暗示了对商业周期影响的解释。回报方面的性别差距也得到了进一步揭示：尽管女性的收入往往较低，但她们的回报却较高，这可能可以解释为跨部门和跨行业的劳动力分配中的性别差异，从而解释了较高的教育水平妇女之间。