The idea of the freedom of conscience as an outcome of the long history of religious conflicts in Europe emerged in XVII–XVIII centuries as protection of minority (‘dissident’) religious beliefs, which for various reasons stood outside the mainstream Christian confessions and established churches. Since then, it is widely acknowledged that the freedom of conscience as the preserve of individual belief both framed by and independent of theological standards is the core of the human rights and civil liberty. For many centuries, Christianity was quite intolerant towards deviations of the mainstream dogmas; the deviations were considered heretical and severely punished. When Christianity became official religion of the Roman Empire, “religious freedom was replaced by religious oppression as enemies of the Church and enemies of the State became more of less interchangeable. Moreover, since many ‘enemies of the State’ were also Christian, this resulted in wars which pitted believers against believers”. (Evans, 1997, p. 2) Similar developments arose in non-Christian societies outside Europe, albeit to a different degree: for example, in Muslim lands, the dominant religious forces imposed various limitations on minority religions, although in general, intolerance of other religions was not as extreme as in Europe. The common development in the medieval period of the European history was the unity of the state central authority and the dominant religion, which was aimed at the prevention of practicing of other religious beliefs. It was almost impossible to view conscience outside a theological framework: “The result was that while the minority approach towards religious belief might have differed from the majority, thereby raising an issue of conscience, a similar oppressive outcome resulted when, or if, the minority assumed power” (Hammer, 2018, p. 12). The Reformation generally recognized the individual conscience, but only in the framework of the word of God. Nevertheless, the idea of the personal

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作为欧洲宗教冲突历史悠久的产物，良心自由的思想出现在十七至十八世纪，作为对少数派（持不同政见者）宗教信仰的保护，出于各种原因，这些信仰站在主流基督教的ess悔和建立的教堂之外。从那时起，人们普遍承认，良心自由是个人信仰的一种保护，无论是由神学标准构成还是独立于其，都是人权和公民自由的核心。许多世纪以来，基督教对主流教义的偏离颇为不容。这些差异被视为异端，并受到严厉惩罚。当基督教成为罗马帝国的正式宗教时，“宗教自由被宗教压迫所取代，因为教会的敌人和国家的敌人之间的交流越来越少。此外，由于许多“国家敌人”也是基督教徒，这导致战争使信徒与信徒抗衡”。（Evans，1997，p。2）在欧洲以外的非基督教社会也出现了类似的发展，尽管程度不同：例如，在穆斯林土地上，占主导地位的宗教势力对少数派宗教施加了各种限制，尽管总的来说，他们对少数民族的不宽容其他宗教并不像欧洲那样极端。欧洲历史上的中世纪时期的共同发展是国家中央权力机构和占主导地位的宗教的统一，目的是防止实践其他宗教信仰。几乎不可能在神学框架之外看清良心：“结果是，尽管少数派对宗教信仰的态度可能与多数派不同，从而引发了良心问题，但当或如果少数派得到了类似的压迫性结果假设的力量”（Hammer，2018年，第12页）。宗教改革大体上承认个人的良心，但仅在神的话语框架内。尽管如此，个人的想法 但仅在神的话语框架内。尽管如此，个人的想法 但仅在神的话语框架内。尽管如此，个人的想法