The reverse-contingency task is a task in which one is given a choice between two rewards, but one receives the larger amount only if one chooses the smaller amount. This task is very difficult for chimpanzees unless the choice is between symbolic representations of the amounts. We found that pigeons can learn this task easily, if the reward amounts are associated with distinctive colors and the choice is delayed by 5 s. The reverse-contingency task involves three components: a loss when choosing one alternative, a gain when choosing the other, and the contrast between what was expected and what occurred. In Experiment 2 we separated the loss from the gain and found that experiencing a loss is sufficient for pigeons to learn to avoid that alternative. Finally, we found evidence for perceived loss aversion. When pigeons were offered a small amount of food and they received that amount, they preferred it over an alternative that offered them a larger amount but gave them only the smaller amount (a perceived loss). The results indicate that loss aversion, based on reference dependence, is likely a general phenomenon, and not only found in humans and other primates. We suggest that it can be attributed to contrast, the difference between what is expected and what is obtained, and it is related to the endowment effect and the mere ownership effect found in humans.

反向应急任务是一项任务，其中一个可以在两个奖励之间进行选择，但是只有当一个选择较小的奖励时，一个奖励才会获得较大的奖励。除非在金额的符号表示之间进行选择，否则对于黑猩猩而言，此任务非常困难。我们发现，如果奖励金额与独特的颜色相关联，并且选择延迟5 s，则鸽子可以轻松地学习此任务。逆向应变任务包括三个组成部分：选择一个备选方案时的损失，选择另一个备选方案时的收益以及预期结果和发生的结果之间的对比。在实验2中，我们将损失与获得分开，发现经历损失足以让鸽子学会避免这种选择。最后，我们找到了可以感知的证据损失厌恶。当给鸽子提供少量的食物而他们收到了那么多的食物时，他们更喜欢鸽子，而不是给鸽子提供更多的食物，但只给鸽子提供更少的食物（可感知的损失）。结果表明，基于参考依赖性的损失厌恶可能是普遍现象，不仅存在于人类和其他灵长类动物中。我们认为，这可以归因于对比，期望和获得的结果之间的差异，并且它与人类中的the赋效应和纯粹的所有权效应有关。