As wild ungulate densities increase across Europe and North America, plant–herbivore interactions are increasingly important from ecological and economic perspectives. These interactions are particularly significant where agriculture and forestry occur and where intensive grazing and browsing by wild ungulates can result in economic losses to growing crops and trees. We studied plant–herbivore interactions in a moose (Alces alces)‐dominant system where forestry is a primary economy, the primary and secondary road networks are extensive, and wolves (Canis lupus) are recolonizing. Wolves and humans use low‐traffic, secondary roads, yet roadsides provide high‐quality and quantity browse for moose. Foraging theory predicts that moose will respond to riskier landscapes by selecting habitats that reduce predation risk, sacrificing feeding time or food quality. As food becomes limiting, however, animals will accept higher predation risk in search of food. We predicted that road avoidance behavior would be strongest within wolf territories. In areas without wolves, moose should select roadsides for their high forage availability. To test these predictions, we measured moose browsing and counted pellet groups as a proxy for habitat use each spring in Norway and Sweden between 2008 and 2018, in areas with and without wolves and at different distances from primary and secondary roads. We used generalized linear mixed models to evaluate drivers of the probability of browsing occurrence and browsing pressure. We found that browsing occurrence increased closer to secondary roads but decreased closer to primary roads. We also found browsing patterns to vary among tree species. For Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), the browsing occurrence was two times higher in young forests relative to non‐young forests and decreased further from secondary roads. Wolf territory presence and probability had neutral or positive effect on browsing occurrence and pressure for all species. However, wolf territory presence had negative effects on browsing occurrence and pressure when interacting with secondary roads, young forest, or snow cover. We showed that roads can influence browsing patterns in Norway and Sweden. However, further research is needed, particularly in the face of continued infrastructure development in Scandinavia.

中文翻译：

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道路，森林和狼相互作用以推动斯堪的纳维亚半岛的驼鹿浏览行为

随着欧洲和北美野生有蹄类动物密度的增加，从生态和经济的角度来看，植物与草食动物的相互作用越来越重要。这些相互作用在发生农业和林业以及野有蹄类动物大量放牧和浏览会导致经济增长的作物和树木遭受损失的地方尤为重要。我们研究了以驼鹿（Alces alces）为主导的系统中植物与草食动物之间的相互作用，其中林业是主要经济体，主要和次要道路网络广泛，狼群（Canis lupus）重新定居。狼和人类使用人流量低的次要道路，而路边却提供了高品质和数量的驼鹿浏览。觅食理论预测，麋鹿将通过选择减少捕食风险，牺牲进食时间或食物质量的栖息地来应对高风险景观。然而，随着食物的限制，动物在寻找食物时会面临更高的捕食风险。我们预测，在狼区域内，回避道路的行为最强。在没有狼的地区，驼鹿应选择路边，以提高草料的利用率。为了检验这些预测，我们测量了驼鹿浏览并计算了颗粒群，作为2008年至2018年之间挪威和瑞典每年春季在有无狼以及与主要和次要道路的距离不同的地区使用栖息地的代用指标。我们使用广义线性混合模型来评估浏览发生概率和浏览压力的驱动因素。我们发现，浏览发生率在靠近次要道路的地方增加，但在靠近主要道路的地方减少。我们还发现浏览模式因树木种类而异。对于苏格兰松树（樟子松（Pinus sylvestris），幼林的浏览发生率是非幼林的两倍，而次生道路的浏览发生率进一步下降。狼领土的存在和概率对所有物种的浏览发生和压力具有中性或积极影响。但是，与次要道路，幼小的森林或积雪互动时，狼的存在对浏览的发生和压力产生负面影响。我们证明了道路会影响挪威和瑞典的浏览方式。但是，还需要进一步研究，尤其是面对斯堪的纳维亚半岛不断发展的基础设施。