ABSTRACT

Background

From a sports perspective, pedagogical researchers have suggested questioning is an effective instructional tool and pedagogical strategy for developing critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making skills. Questions enable coaches to contextualise athlete learning by encouraging and guiding them to identify and explore solutions to game-based problems. While previous investigations have explored the frequency of questions and provided some understanding of the interactions within a coaching session, there is still limited empirical knowledge related to the structure and profile of coach questioning strategies.

Purpose

This study aims to explore how youth soccer coaches, implementing the FFA National Curriculum, have used questioning techniques within specific coaching contexts/activities to promote athlete learning.

Method

Australian youth soccer coaches (i.e. U12 – U16; n = 19) were filmed during regular training sessions. A questioning profile coding system was developed and used to provide a detailed profile of the types of questions asked by the coaches in different coaching situations. The frequency of each coded event (i.e. type, context, who, what, knowledge, and activity) was recorded.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard error) were used to describe all coded information. Association rule models were generated to determine the extent to which a questioning profile descriptor (i.e. Question Type, Knowledge, Context, Who, What) occurred in the presence of another.

Results

Coaches asked on average 71 questions per session (0.88 questions per minute), with slightly greater use of convergent (i.e. closed) questions (52.2%) than divergent (i.e. open) questions (47.8%). Coaches use convergent questions that are instructional and promote lower order thinking. In contrast, divergent questions are generally related to a game tactic or principle and are asked when the team has stopped an activity. The rule models indicated there is a general trend when considering the structure and profile of the type of question (i.e. convergent; divergent) asked in the different training session activity types. During drills and small-sided games, coaches asked convergent questions to the team, which were instructional in nature and required lower level knowledge. For large games, the question was more targeted to the individual while the activity was on-going, but still required lower level knowledge. Divergent questions generally related to game tactics although only 7% of these questions asked players to problem solve.

Conclusion

The results of the current study indicate that coaches are posing more questions within a coaching session, compared to previous studies, possibly reflecting the emphasis placed on questioning as an athlete learning strategy within the FFA National Curriculum. Association rule models provided greater insights into the distinct ‘styles’ or profiles typically implemented by coaches during specific types of activity. From a learning perspective, coaches should consider the players needs and wants when determining which type of question best suits the situation and be prepared to move between types of questions depending on player responses. Future research should consider the perspectives of coaches and athletes to determine why questions were asked, and how effective they were in reaching their intended purposes.

中文翻译：

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问题的艺术：青年足球教练在训练期间提出的问题结构

摘要

背景

从体育的角度来看，教学研究人员认为提问是一种有效的教学工具和教学策略，可以培养批判性思维、解决问题和决策能力。问题使教练能够通过鼓励和指导他们识别和探索基于游戏的问题的解决方案来将运动员的学习情境化。虽然之前的调查已经探索了提问的频率并提供了对教练课程中互动的一些理解，但与教练提问策略的结构和概况相关的经验知识仍然有限。

目的

本研究旨在探索青年足球教练在实施 FFA 国家课程时如何在特定的教练环境/活动中使用提问技巧来促进运动员学习。

方法

澳大利亚青年足球教练（即 U12 – U16；n  = 19）在定期训练期间被拍摄。开发了一个提问档案编码系统，并用于提供教练在不同教练情况下提出的问题类型的详细档案。记录每个编码事件的频率（即类型、上下文、谁、什么、知识和活动）。

数据分析

描述性统计（平均值±标准误差）用于描述所有编码信息。生成关联规则模型以确定提问简档描述符（即问题类型、知识、上下文、谁、什么）在另一个存在时出现的程度。

结果

教练平均每节课提出 71 个问题（每分钟 0.88 个问题），收敛（即封闭）问题的使用（52.2%）略多于发散（即开放）问题（47.8%）。教练使用具有指导意义并促进低阶思维的收敛性问题。相反，发散性问题通常与游戏策略或原则有关，并在团队停止活动时被问到。规则模型表明，在考虑不同培训课程活动类型中提出的问题类型（即收敛的；发散的）的结构和概况时，存在一个总体趋势。在训练和小场比赛中，教练向球队提出了收敛的问题，这些问题具有指导性，需要较低水平的知识。对于大型游戏，该问题在活动进行时更针对个人，但仍需要较低水平的知识。不同的问题通常与游戏策略有关，尽管这些问题中只有 7% 要求玩家解决问题。

结论

目前的研究结果表明，与以前的研究相比，教练在教练课程中提出了更多的问题，这可能反映了在 FFA 国家课程中将提问作为运动员学习策略的重点。关联规则模型提供了对教练在特定类型活动中通常实施的不同“风格”或配置文件的更深入了解。从学习的角度来看，教练在确定哪种类型的问题最适合情况时应考虑球员的需求和愿望，并准备好根据球员的反应在不同类型的问题之间切换。未来的研究应该考虑教练和运动员的观点，以确定提出问题的原因，以及他们在达到预期目的方面的有效性。