Land was an unambiguous constraint for growth in the pre-industrial period. In Britain it was overcome partly through the transition from traditional land-based goods to coal (vertical expansion) and partly through accessing overseas land, primarily from colonies (horizontal expansion). Kenneth Pomeranz suggested that horizontal expansion may have outweighed vertical expansion in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Taking a more complete approach to trade, we find that Britain was a net exporter of land embodied in traded commodities, apart from in the early nineteenth century, when potash (rather than cotton or timber) constituted the major land-demanding import from North America. The vertical expansion was generally larger than the horizontal expansion. In other words, Britain was not simply appropriating flows of land and resources from abroad but simultaneously providing its trading partners with even more land-expanding resources.

中文翻译：

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英国工业化中的贸易和克服土地限制：实证评估

在前工业时代，土地是增长的明确制约因素。在英国，它部分是通过从传统的陆上商品向煤炭的过渡（纵向扩张）和部分通过主要从殖民地进入海外土地（横向扩张）来克服的。Kenneth Pomeranz 认为，在 19 世纪的前几十年，横向扩张可能超过了垂直扩张。采取更全面的贸易方法，我们发现英国是贸易商品所体现的土地的净出口国，除了在 19 世纪初，钾肥（而不是棉花或木材）构成了从北美进口的主要土地需求. 垂直扩张普遍大于水平扩张。换一种说法，