As globalization spreads consumerism and rationalism across the world, there is a corresponding trend towards homogenization and commercialization in culture. As an important element of culture, sport—in particular soccer—is not immune to this trend. The commercialization of soccer has globalized what had hitherto been a national phenomenon, and the integration of local sports into the global economy has changed the way that fans interact with the game all over the world; in short, fans have been transformed into apolitical consumers. Yet the turn to “modern football” has not affected fans in the Middle East in the same manner; on the contrary, sport in the Middle East has been politicized in a way that it hitherto has not been. In Egypt “ultras” played a role in social protest during the so-called Arab Spring, and in Turkey Beşiktaş fans did the same during the 2013 Gezi Park protests. These instances can be interpreted as an appeal to the local, national, and emotional aspects of sport and, in the case of Turkey, the participation of soccer fans in these protests was tied to these collectivist sentiments. The connection between sports and nationalism is well documented and not surprising, as organized sport itself is both a reflection of modernity—with its emphasis on rationalism—and a reaction against modernity, providing a space wherein the free release of emotional energy is permitted. This duality is also reflected by the concept of nationalism; whereas modernist scholars such as Benedict Anderson and Ernest Gellner see nations and nationalism as manifestations of modernity, others such as Anthony Smith view nations and nationalism as a reaction against modernity that appeals to the past. In this latter view they are

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体育场内的霸权话语冲突：土耳其的体育、民族主义和全球化

随着全球化在世界范围内传播消费主义和理性主义，文化也出现了同质化和商业化的趋势。作为文化的一个重要元素，体育——尤其是足球——也不能幸免于这一趋势。足球的商业化使此前的全国现象全球化，本土体育与全球经济的融合改变了全世界球迷与比赛互动的方式；简而言之，粉丝已经转变为不关心政治的消费者。然而，转向“现代足球”并没有以同样的方式影响中东的球迷。相反，中东的体育运动以前所未有的方式被政治化。在埃及，在所谓的阿拉伯之春期间，“超人”在社会抗议中发挥了作用，在土耳其，贝西克塔斯的球迷在 2013 年 Gezi Park 抗议活动中也做了同样的事情。这些实例可以被解释为对体育运动的地方、国家和情感方面的呼吁，就土耳其而言，足球迷参与这些抗议活动与这些集体主义情绪有关。体育与民族主义之间的联系是有据可查的，并不奇怪，因为有组织的体育运动本身既是现代性的反映——强调理性主义——也是对现代性的反应，提供了一个允许情感能量自由释放的空间。这种二元性也体现在民族主义的概念上；而本尼迪克特·安德森和欧内斯特·盖尔纳等现代主义学者将民族和民族主义视为现代性的表现，其他人，如安东尼·史密斯，将国家和民族主义视为对诉诸过去的现代性的一种反应。在后一种观点中，他们是