Widely accepted findings in developmental and life-course criminology cannot be extended to criminal careers of organized crime offenders. While most offenders begin offending at a young age, criminal careers in organized crime are generally characterized by a late onset typically characterized by relatively serious offending. Different patterns exist for different groups, including early starters, adult-onset offenders, and offenders with no previous judicial contacts, but all studies find a significant share of adult-onset offenders. Social relationships, including family, friendship, and work ties, are importantly related to becoming involved in organized crime. Involvement mechanisms are diverse; both conventional and criminal capital are important. Children of organized crime offenders have a high risk of intergenerational continuity of crime. Factors that promote desistance for most offenders, such as employment, sometimes have different meanings for organized crime participants, as some occupations provide criminal opportunities and some work settings foster offender convergence. Widely used concepts such as specialization and desistance are less applicable because of the distinctive nature of organized crime offenses and careers. The most urgent issue for future research is to incorporate the roles of co-offenders into analyses of individual criminal careers.

中文翻译：

---

有组织犯罪和刑事职业

在发展和生命历程犯罪学中广为接受的发现不能扩展到有组织犯罪者的犯罪职业。尽管大多数罪犯从小就开始犯罪，但有组织犯罪中的犯罪职业通常以发病较晚为特征，通常以相对严重的犯罪为特征。不同群体存在不同的模式，包括初学者，成年罪犯和没有司法联系的罪犯，但是所有研究都发现，成年罪犯中有很大一部分。包括家庭关系，友谊和工作关系在内的社会关系与参与有组织犯罪非常重要。参与机制多种多样；传统资本和犯罪资本都很重要。有组织犯罪者的子女具有犯罪代际连续性的高风险。诸如职业之类的促进大多数罪犯抵制的因素，有时对有组织犯罪参与者具有不同的含义，因为某些职业提供犯罪机会，某些工作环境促进罪犯趋同。由于有组织犯罪和职业的鲜明性质，诸如专业化和断断续续等广泛使用的概念不太适用。未来研究最紧迫的问题是将同罪犯的角色纳入对个人犯罪职业的分析中。由于有组织犯罪和职业的鲜明性质，诸如专业化和断断续续等广泛使用的概念不太适用。未来研究最紧迫的问题是将同罪犯的角色纳入对个人犯罪职业的分析中。由于有组织犯罪和职业的鲜明性质，诸如专业化和断断续续等广泛使用的概念不太适用。未来研究最紧迫的问题是将同罪犯的角色纳入对个人犯罪职业的分析中。