Racial boundaries are hard to measure but consequential for understanding larger processes of racial inequality. Some argue that the racial hierarchy is expanding to include a third category for non-black minority identities while others believe that a binary racial hierarchy will persist as many non-black minorities will come to be seen as white. I use the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 to investigate how racial identities that vary (either because racial identities changed across survey waves or because racial identities are incongruent with interviewer perceptions) speak to each of these theories. I assess the frequency of different racial variations and how different patterns of racial variations are associated with individuals’ perceived level of happiness. When racial identities vary across time, context, or the perception of others, the work required to negotiate a racial identity can take a psychological toll and may decrease happiness. I find support for the whitening hypothesis; the most common type of racial variation includes respondents classified as non-black minorities by a household member later claiming a white identity. And, for those individuals, claiming a white identity is congruent with how they are perceived by interviewers. In addition, only for individuals who crossed black boundaries is racial variability consequential to perceived happiness, evidencing a strong racial boundary between black and anything else and more permeability in the boundary between non-black minorities and whites.

中文翻译：

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绘制种族边界图：不同的种族身份会降低谁的幸福感？

种族界限很难衡量，但对于理解更大范围的种族不平等进程是很重要的。一些人认为种族等级制度正在扩大，以包括非黑人少数族裔身份的第三类，而另一些人则认为二元种族等级制度将继续存在，因为许多非黑人少数族裔将被视为白人。我使用《 1997年全国青年纵向研究》来调查种族身份如何变化（因为种族身份在调查浪潮中发生了变化，或者因为种族身份与访问者的看法不一致）对每种理论的影响。我评估了不同种族差异的发生频率，以及种族差异的不同模式如何与个人的感知幸福感相关联。当种族身份随时间，背景，或对他人的感知，进行种族认同谈判所需的工作可能会造成心理伤害，并可能降低幸福感。我发现支持美白假设。最常见的种族变异类型是被家庭成员归为非黑人少数群体的受访者，后来他们声称拥有白人身份。而且，对于这些人而言，声称白人身份与访问者的看法完全一致。此外，只有跨过黑人边界的人的种族变异性才导致感知到的幸福感，这表明黑人与其他事物之间的种族边界很强，非黑人少数民族与白人之间的边界更具渗透性。我发现支持美白假设。最常见的种族变异类型是被家庭成员归为非黑人少数群体的受访者，后来他们声称拥有白人身份。而且，对于这些人而言，声称白人身份与访问者的看法完全一致。此外，只有跨过黑人边界的人的种族变异性才导致感知到的幸福感，这表明黑人与其他事物之间的种族边界很强，而非黑人少数族裔与白人之间的边界则更具渗透性。我发现支持美白假设。最常见的种族变异类型是被家庭成员归为非黑人少数群体的受访者，后来他们声称拥有白人身份。而且，对于这些人而言，声称白人身份与访问者的看法完全一致。此外，只有跨过黑人边界的人的种族变异性才导致感知到的幸福感，这表明黑人与其他事物之间的种族边界很强，而非黑人少数族裔与白人之间的边界则更具渗透性。