The making of the international system from c. 1500 reflected distinctively maritime dynamics, especially “gunboat diplomacy,” or the use of naval force for commercial gain. Comparisons between civilizations and across time show, first, that gunboat diplomacy was peculiarly European and, second, that it evolved through stages. For the majority of the modern era, violence was central to the commercial strategies of European state, private, and hybrid actors alike in the wider world. In contrast, large and small non-Western polities almost never sought to advance mercantile aims through naval coercion. European exceptionalism reflected a structural trade deficit, regional systemic dynamics favoring armed trade, and mercantilist beliefs. Changes in international norms later restricted the practice of gunboat diplomacy to states, as private navies became illegitimate. More generally, a maritime perspective suggests the need for a reappraisal of fundamental conceptual divisions and shows how the capital- and technology-intensive nature of naval war allowed relatively small European powers to be global players. It also explains how European expansion and the creation of the first global international system was built on dominance at sea centuries before Europeans’ general military superiority on land.

中文翻译：

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海上的权力与利润：西方在国际体系形成过程中的崛起

国际体系的形成从c。1500 年反映了独特的海上动态，尤其是“炮舰外交”，即使用海军力量谋取商业利益。文明之间和跨时间的比较表明，首先，炮舰外交是欧洲特有的，其次，它经历了阶段性的演变。在现代的大部分时间里，暴力是欧洲国家、私人和混合行动者在更广阔世界的商业战略的核心。相比之下，大大小小的非西方政体几乎从未寻求通过海军胁迫来推进商业目标。欧洲例外主义反映了结构性贸易逆差、有利于武装贸易的区域系统性动态以及重商主义信仰。后来国际规范的变化将炮舰外交的实践限制在国家，随着私人海军变得非法。更一般地说，海上视角表明需要重新评估基本概念分歧，并表明海战的资本和技术密集型性质如何允许相对较小的欧洲大国成为全球参与者。它还解释了欧洲的扩张和第一个全球国际体系的建立是如何在欧洲人在陆地上取得普遍军事优势之前的几个世纪建立在海上优势的基础上的。