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Bad World: The Negativity Bias in International Politics
International Security ( IF 4.8 ) Pub Date : 2019-02-01 , DOI: 10.1162/isec_a_00336
Dominic D.P. Johnson , Dominic Tierney

A major puzzle in international relations is why states privilege negative over positive information. States tend to inflate threats, exhibit loss aversion, and learn more from failures than from successes. Rationalist accounts fail to explain this phenomenon, because systematically overweighting bad over good may in fact undermine state interests. New research in psychology, however, offers an explanation. The “negativity bias” has emerged as a fundamental principle of the human mind, in which people's response to positive and negative information is asymmetric. Negative factors have greater effects than positive factors across a wide range of psychological phenomena, including cognition, motivation, emotion, information processing, decision-making, learning, and memory. Put simply, bad is stronger than good. Scholars have long pointed to the role of positive biases, such as overconfidence, in causing war, but negative biases are actually more pervasive and may represent a core explanation for patterns of conflict. Positive and negative dispositions apply in different contexts. People privilege negative information about the external environment and other actors, but positive information about themselves. The coexistence of biases can increase the potential for conflict. Decisionmakers simultaneously exaggerate the severity of threats and exhibit overconfidence about their capacity to deal with them. Overall, the negativity bias is a potent force in human judgment and decisionmaking, with important implications for international relations theory and practice.

中文翻译:

坏世界:国际政治中的消极偏见

国际关系中的一个主要难题是为什么国家将负面信息置于正面信息之上。国家倾向于夸大威胁,表现出厌恶损失,并从失败中学到的比从成功中学到的更多。理性主义者的解释无法解释这种现象,因为系统性地将坏事置于好事之上实际上可能会损害国家利益。然而,心理学的新研究提供了一个解释。“消极偏见”已经成为人类思维的一个基本原则,即人们对正面和负面信息的反应是不对称的。在认知、动机、情绪、信息处理、决策、学习和记忆等广泛的心理现象中,消极因素比积极因素的影响更大。简而言之,坏比好强。长期以来,学者们一直指出积极偏见(如过度自信)在引发战争中的作用,但消极偏见实际上更为普遍,可能代表了对冲突模式的核心解释。积极和消极的倾向适用于不同的环境。人们偏爱关于外部环境和其他行为者的负面信息,但偏爱关于自己的正面信息。偏见的共存会增加冲突的可能性。决策者同时夸大威胁的严重性,并对他们应对威胁的能力表现出过度自信。总体而言,消极偏见是人类判断和决策的强大力量,对国际关系理论和实践具有重要意义。但负面偏见实际上更为普遍,可能代表了对冲突模式的核心解释。积极和消极的倾向适用于不同的环境。人们偏爱关于外部环境和其他行为者的负面信息,但偏爱关于自己的正面信息。偏见的共存会增加冲突的可能性。决策者同时夸大威胁的严重性,并对他们应对威胁的能力表现出过度自信。总体而言,消极偏见是人类判断和决策的强大力量,对国际关系理论和实践具有重要意义。但负面偏见实际上更为普遍,可能代表了对冲突模式的核心解释。积极和消极的倾向适用于不同的环境。人们偏爱关于外部环境和其他行为者的负面信息,但偏爱关于自己的正面信息。偏见的共存会增加冲突的可能性。决策者同时夸大威胁的严重性,并对他们应对威胁的能力表现出过度自信。总体而言,消极偏见是人类判断和决策的强大力量,对国际关系理论和实践具有重要意义。人们偏爱关于外部环境和其他行为者的负面信息,但偏爱关于自己的正面信息。偏见的共存会增加冲突的可能性。决策者同时夸大威胁的严重性,并对他们应对威胁的能力表现出过度自信。总体而言,消极偏见是人类判断和决策的强大力量,对国际关系理论和实践具有重要意义。人们偏爱关于外部环境和其他行为者的负面信息,但偏爱关于自己的正面信息。偏见的共存会增加冲突的可能性。决策者同时夸大威胁的严重性,并对他们应对威胁的能力表现出过度自信。总体而言,消极偏见是人类判断和决策的强大力量,对国际关系理论和实践具有重要意义。
更新日期:2019-02-01
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