Both the ‘hidden history’ of men’s mental health and the perceived pressures of ‘modern’ life in the nineteenth century have been the subject of recent historiographic exploration. Of emerging importance is the extent to which forms of power – institutional, political, social – underwrite and structure male identity. This introduction maps out the landscape of a New Agenda that views male experience through the dual lenses of power and confinement, highlighting the far-reaching implications of the restraints placed upon middle-class men – socially, ideologically, and physically – by a changing social and medical landscape, from the early Victorian period to the final decades of the century more commonly associated with the onset of modernity. The essays that follow will explore the confining apparatuses of male-dominated professional spheres and identify points of resistance in the form of textual reflection and selffashioning. From the walls of the asylum, to the constraints of professional life, to the ideals of literary production, these essays expose the biopolitics of these structures of confinement while demonstrating that such frameworks provided space, in some cases, for revisionist assertions of masculine selfhood. K E Y W O R D S : confinement, masculinity, nervous illness, neurasthenia, mental health, overwork, stress, fatigue, modernity, genius, selfhood, asylum I N T R O D U C T I O N In George Gissing’s 1897 novel The Whirlpool, he uses the titular image to illustrate the tumultuous and confining experience of his characters, who live ‘life at high pressure’.1 Alma Frothingham thinks her father is ‘a wonderful man’ because ‘for years he has never had more than six hours sleep’, and can’t take holidays for fear of ‘perish[ing] of ennui’.2 Alma’s admiration of his energetically ‘living [life] out’, however, is undercut by her father’s suicide following the collapse of his banking and investment company. Gissing, through his mouthpiece Harvey Rolfe, aligns such experiences of overpressure with being ‘gripped, worried, dragged down’ and being ‘resistless[ly] drawn into the muddy whirlpool, to spin round and round among gibbering phantoms, abandoning [them]sel[ves] with a grin of inane conceit, or clutching in desperation at futile hopes’.3 Such an image foregrounds the sense of entrapment associated in late-nineteenth-century culture with the stresses and strains of commercial and professional life. Gissing’s powerful image of individuals struggling to cope with mental and physical overwork forms part of a larger discourse that was being voiced throughout the nineteenth century and expressed in medical works from Thomas Trotter and Anthony Todd Thomson in * University of Oxford, E-mail: emilie.taylor-brown@ell.ox.ac.uk 1 George Gissing, The Whirlpool (London: Lawrence and Bullen, 1897), p. 40. 2 Gissing, p. 42. 3 Gissing, p. 216. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial reproduction and distribution of the work, in any medium, provided the original work is not altered or transformed in any way, and that the work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com D ow naded rom http/academ ic.p.com /jvc/article-at/24/2/137/5423984 by U niersity of irm inham user on 09 uly 2019 138 • Power and Male Identity the early part of the century, to Thomas Clifford Allbutt and Thomas Stretch Dowse, as well as – famously – American neurologist George Miller Beard’s writings on neurasthenia and Max Nordau’s Degeneration (1892) at the end. All of these writers pathologized what they perceived to be new ways of living that placed pressure on individuals to live up to expectations and norms that were not always tenable. These norms were embodied in confining linguistic, social, ideological, and institutional structures. This New Agenda is interested in both literal and figurative structures of confinement (and their textual manifestations), from the walls of the asylum, to the constraints of middle-class professional life, to the ideals of literary production. The essays that follow explore new ways of thinking about the intersections between identity and new social formations that were codified by these structures as they emerged across the century. As major facets of social identity, gender and class will form dual focuses of the three essays. While Gissing’s whirlpool provides us with one way of envisaging masculinity, trapped within the confines of late-Victorian financial and professional institutions, the eighteenth-century discourse of the nervous body similarly fed into concerns about mental and physical health at the century’s beginning.4 Thus Thomas Trotter had warned in A View of the Nervous Temperament (1807), that if the ‘increasing prevalence of nervous disorders’ was not restrained, it must ‘sap our physical strength of constitution; make us an easy conquest to our invaders; and ultimately convert us into a nation of slaves and idiots’.5 Great Britain’s ‘commercial greatness’ was seen to be under threat, and could only be maintained by controlling the nervous minds and bodies of its inhabitants. In this rather extreme example, one can see at work the biopolitics outlined by Foucault, in which institutional and state power is mapped onto the everyday lives, and bodies, of citizens.6 Although the metaphors shift during the century, it is possible to track equivalent forms of alignment between mind, body and emerging social structures of modernity, which were accompanied by increasingly prescriptive models of psychological normativity, inflected by both gender and class. The essays in this New Agenda explore three very different maps of such intersections. The perceived progress of civilization as Britain embraced industrial capitalism, and the associated rise of ‘nervous illness’, was accompanied by what Roy Porter calls a ‘psychiatric orthodoxy’ of segregation in the early nineteenth century, whereby those thought to be suffering from mental illness were increasingly separated from their families in private and state asylums.7 This increased social visibility of insanity and nervous illness contributed in turn to the belief that Britain was becoming, statistically, more mad. British physician Anthony Todd Thomson, writing in 1840 and perhaps taking a cue from Trotter’s earlier work, attributed the prevalence of diseases of the nervous system, such as hypochondriasis, to ‘the very structure of advanced society [with] its excitements and depressions, its contentions, envyings, jealousies, cares and anxieties, as well as its thousand real and imagined evils’.8 An article in 4 See: Heather R. Beatty, Nervous Disease in Late Eighteenth-Century Britain (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016); Albrecht Koschorke, ‘Physiological Self-Regulation: The Eighteenth-Century Modernization of the Human Body’, MLN, 123 (2008), 469–84; Elizabeth Green Musselman, Nervous Conditions: Science and the Body Politic in Early Industrial Britain (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2006); Erin Wilson, ‘The End of Sensibility: The Nervous Body in the Early Nineteenth Century’, Literature and Medicine, 30 (2012), 276–91. 5 Thomas Trotter, A View of the Nervous Temperament; Being a Practical Enquiry into the Increasing Prevalence, Prevention, and Treatment of these Diseases. 3rd edn with Large Additions (London: Longman, 1812), p. x. 6 Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978–1979, ed. by Michel Senellart, trans. by Graham Burchell (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). 7 Roy Porter, Madmen: A Social History of Madhouses, Mad-doctors, and Lunatics (Stroud: Tempus, 2006), p. 196. 8 [Anthony Todd Thomson], ‘Sketches from the Notebook of a Physician—No. III’ New Monthly Magazine, 58.230 (February 1840), 260–72 (p. 261). D ow naded rom http/academ ic.p.com /jvc/article-at/24/2/137/5423984 by U niersity of irm inham user on 09 uly 2019 Power and Male Identity • 139 Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal had similarly blamed ‘civilization’ for an increased ‘liability to insanity’, because ‘the mind is roused to exertion without being disciplined, it is stimulated without being strengthened; because our selfish propensities are cultivated while our moral nature is left barren’.9 In 1857, The Scottish Review published an article that explored a position that they saw reflected in ‘the annual reports of directors and superintendents of our public lunatic asylums, the parliamentary reports of the Commissioners of Lunacy, and the various journals bearing on or devoted to psychological medicine’ – namely ‘that insanity is on the increase, not only relatively to the increasing population, but absolutely in relation thereto from causes inseparably connected with the present artificial state of society’.10 For Porter, this popular and medical focus on nervous insanity, and the widespread emergence of psychiatric institutions in England, was a ‘triumph of the captains of confinement’, a formulation which draws on Foucault’s theory of the ‘great confinement’.11 This term resonates with the first essay in this New Agenda, in which David Trotter provides a radically new perspective on confinement and identity by taking a media theory approach to psychiatric illness. Using an asylum memoir as a form that voices the psychiatric impact of environment, Trotter advocates a shift in scholarly emphasis from the patient’s body to his or her surroundings, and uses two well-known asylum memoirs (first published in 1838 and 1840) by John Perceval (1803–1876) as a medium for thinking about forms of architectural and institutional power. As Joseph Melling has argued, nineteenth-century asylums ‘modelled social behaviour around the norms of rational bourgeoisie expectations’. The commercial and consumer revolutions of the eighteen

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监禁的结构：男性身份的权力和问题

男性心理健康的“隐藏历史”和 19 世纪“现代”生活的感知压力都是最近史学探索的主题。越来越重要的是权力形式——制度、政治、社会——在多大程度上支持和构建男性身份。本介绍描绘了通过权力和禁闭双重视角看待男性体验的新议程的景观，突出了不断变化的社会对中产阶级男性的社会、意识形态和身体限制的深远影响。和医学景观，从维多利亚时代早期到本世纪的最后几十年，更普遍地与现代性的开始联系在一起。接下来的文章将探讨男性主导的专业领域的限制机制，并以文本反思和自我塑造的形式确定阻力点。从精神病院的围墙，到职业生活的限制，再到文学创作的理想，这些文章揭露了这些禁闭结构的生命政治，同时表明这些框架在某些情况下为修正主义的男性自我主张提供了空间。关键词：坐月子、阳刚之气、神经病、神经衰弱、心理健康、过度劳累、压力、疲劳、现代性、天才、自我、庇护 引言 在乔治·吉辛 1897 年的小说《漩涡》中，他用名义形象来说明他的动荡和局限的经历过着“高压生活”的角色。1 Alma Frothingham 认为她的父亲是“一个了不起的人”，因为“多年来他的睡眠从未超过六个小时”，并且不能因为害怕“厌倦而消亡”而休假。2 Alma 对他的钦佩然而，在银行和投资公司倒闭后，她父亲的自杀削弱了她精力充沛的“活出[生活]”。吉辛通过他的喉舌哈维罗尔夫将这种压力过大的经历与“被抓住、担心、被拖累”和“被卷入泥泞的漩涡，在胡言乱语中绕来绕去，放弃[他们]自我”结合起来。 [ves] 带着一种自负狂妄的笑容，或者绝望地抓着徒劳的希望。3 这样的形象突出了 19 世纪后期文化中与商业和职业生活的压力和压力相关的束缚感。吉辛关于个体努力应对精神和身体过度劳累的强大形象构成了整个 19 世纪所表达的更大话语的一部分，并在牛津大学的 Thomas Trotter 和 Anthony Todd Thomson 的医学著作中得到表达，电子邮件：emilie .taylor-brown@ell.ox.ac.uk 1 George Gissing, The Whirlpool (伦敦: Lawrence and Bullen, 1897), p. 40. 2 吉辛，第。42. 3 吉辛，第。216. 这是一篇根据知识共享署名-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 许可 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 的条款分发的开放获取文章，该许可允许非商业复制和在任何媒体中分发作品，前提是原始作品未以任何方式更改或转换，并且该作品被正确引用。如需商业再利用，请联系期刊。permission@oup.com D ow naded rom http/academ ic.p.com /jvc/article-at/24/2/137/5423984 by irm inham 用户大学 2019 年 1 月 9 日 138 • 早期的权力和男性身份本世纪的一部分，Thomas Clifford Allbutt 和 Thomas Stretch Dowse，以及著名的美国神经学家 George Miller Beard 关于神经衰弱和 Max Nordau's Degeneration (1892) 最后的著作。所有这些作家都将他们认为的新生活方式病态化，这些生活方式对个人施加压力，要求他们实现并不总是站得住脚的期望和规范。这些规范体现在对语​​言、社会、意识形态和制度结构的限制中。这个新议程对隔离的字面和比喻结构（及其文字表现）感兴趣，从庇护所的墙壁，对中产阶级职业生活的约束，对文学创作的理想。接下来的文章探索了新的思考方式，思考身份与新社会形态之间的交叉点，这些结构在整个世纪出现时被编纂成法典。作为社会认同的主要方面，性别和阶级将构成三篇文章的双重焦点。虽然吉辛的漩涡为我们提供了一种想象男性气质的方式，但被困在维多利亚晚期金融和专业机构的范围内，但 18 世纪关于神经身体的论述同样在本世纪初引发了对身心健康的担忧。 4 因此托马斯·特罗特 (Thomas Trotter) 在 A View of the Nervous Temperament (1807) 中警告说，如果不克制“不断增加的神经障碍患病率”，它必须“削弱我们的体质”；让我们轻松征服入侵者；并最终将我们转变为一个由奴隶和白痴组成的国家。5 英国的“商业伟大”被视为受到威胁，只能通过控制其居民的神经精神和身体来维持。在这个相当极端的例子中，人们可以看到福柯概述的生命政治在起作用，其中制度和国家权力映射到公民的日常生活和身体上。 6 尽管隐喻在本世纪发生了变化，但仍有可能追踪思想、身体和现代性新兴社会结构之间的等价形式，伴随着越来越规范的心理规范模型，受到性别和阶级的影响。本新议程中的文章探讨了此类交叉点的三种截然不同的地图。随着英国接受工业资本主义，文明的进步以及随之而来的“神经疾病”的兴起，伴随着罗伊波特所谓的 19 世纪早期种族隔离的“精神正统”，即那些被认为患有精神疾病的人越来越多的人在私人和国家庇护所中与家人分离。 7 精神错乱和神经疾病的社会知名度增加反过来又促使人们相信英国在统计上变得更加疯狂。英国医生安东尼·托德·汤姆森 (Anthony Todd Thomson) 于 1840 年写作，或许从特罗特早期的工作中得到启发，将神经系统疾病（如疑病症）的流行归因于，对“先进社会的结构本身[及其]兴奋和沮丧、争论、嫉妒、嫉妒、担忧和焦虑，以及成千上万的真实和想象的邪恶”。8 4 中的一篇文章参见：Heather R. Beatty， 18 世纪晚期英国的神经疾病（Abingdon：Routledge，2016 年）；Albrecht Koschorke，“生理自我调节：十八世纪人体现代化”，MLN，123（2008），469–84；Elizabeth Green Musselman，神经状况：英国早期工业的科学与身体政治（纽约州奥尔巴尼：纽约州立大学出版社，2006 年）；Erin Wilson，“感性的终结：19 世纪早期的神经性身体”，文学和医学，30（2012），276-91。5 托马斯·特罗特 (Thomas Trotter)，《神经质观》；作为对日益流行的实用调查，预防和治疗这些疾病。3rd edn with Large Additions（伦敦：朗文，1812），px 6 Michel Foucault，生命政治的诞生：法兰西学院讲座，1978-1979，编辑。作者：Michel Senellart，反式。Graham Burchell 着（贝辛斯托克：Palgrave Macmillan，2010 年）。7 Roy Porter, Madmen: A Social History of Madhouses, Mad-doctors, and Lunatics (Stroud: Tempus, 2006), p. 196. 8 [Anthony Todd Thomson]，“医生笔记本的草图——没有。III' 新月刊，58.230（1840 年 2 月），260–72（第 261 页）。Dow naded rom http/academ ic.p.com /jvc/article-at/24/2/137/5423984 由 irm inham 用户在 2019 年 7 月 9 日的权力和男性身份 • 139 钱伯斯的爱丁堡日报同样指责'文明”增加了“精神错乱的责任”，因为“头脑被唤醒而不受约束，它被刺激而不被加强；因为我们的自私倾向得到了培养，而我们的道德本性却被遗弃了。9 1857 年，苏格兰评论发表了一篇文章，探讨了他们认为反映在“我们公共疯人院的董事和负责人的年度报告中的立场，议会精神病委员会的报告，以及与心理医学有关或致力于心理医学的各种期刊”——即“精神错乱正在增加，不仅相对于人口的增加，而且绝对与人口增长有关，原因与目前的人工疗法密不可分10 对波特来说，这种对神经错乱的流行和医学关注，以及英国精神病院的广泛出现，是“禁闭队长的胜利”，这一表述借鉴了福柯的“大禁闭”理论。11 这一术语与《新议程》中的第一篇文章产生了共鸣，其中大卫·特罗特 (David Trotter) 通过对精神疾病采取媒体理论方法，提供了关于禁闭和身份的全新视角。使用庇护回忆录作为表达环境对精神病学影响的一种形式，特罗特主张将学术重点从患者的身体转移到他或她的周围环境，并使用约翰的两本著名的庇护回忆录（首次出版于 1838 年和 1840 年） Perceval (1803–1876) 作为思考建筑和制度权力形式的媒介。正如约瑟夫·梅林 (Joseph Melling) 所说，19 世纪的庇护所“围绕理性资产阶级期望的规范塑造了社会行为”。十八世纪的商业和消费者革命